Essay: Survival Basics. In an autonomous existence of fishing, perhaps the most affordable way to ensure that

Gomel Engineering Institute of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus

Safety of vital activity

Survival basics

Prepared

Anicovich I.I.

Gomel 2009.

Basic concepts of survival

Man's life has always been conjugate with dangers. It is not by chance that our distant ancestors, making the first steps along the path of evolution, learned to use the stone not only as an instrument of labor, but also as a weapon.

The struggle for the existence forced people with all the truths and inconsisions to cling to life, to be found to any adversities, no matter how heavy they were, boldly go towards hazards. The desire to implement, it would seem impossible, permeating the entire history of mankind, helps to understand the incredible efforts undertaken by people in various parts of the world in order to adapt to harsh natural conditions. A person has always possessed the ability to adapt to a natural and artificial environment - from primitive hunters, who went to the beast with a stone ax in her hands, to the cosmic travelers of the second half of our century, for a long time Staying in a state of weightlessness, mobilizing all their physical and mental capabilities. Survival are active, appropriate actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in conditions autonomous existence. It is for people whose life is constantly conjugated with dangers, preliminary training is very important, both physical and psychological. Rescuers, military personnel of many types of troops, tourists leaving long routes, many scientists and researchers must necessarily undergo a complete adaptation process, as a result of which the body gradually acquires no previously resistance to certain environmental factors and, thus, gets the opportunity to "live in Conditions previously incompatible with life ", which means full fitness to the conditions of polar cold, sultry deserts or lack of oxygen at mountain altitudes, fresh water in the salty sea. People who have passed full adaptation have chances not only to keep life itself, but also solve problems, previously intractable.

The process of adaptation is very complex and multistage. At the first stage, the stage of adaptation to any new factor, the body is close to the maximum of its capabilities, but solves the problem that has arisen is far from perfectly. However, after some time, if a person (or animal) does not die, and the factor requiring adaptation continues to operate, the possibilities of the living system increase - to replace the extreme, or urgent, stage of the process of effective and sustainable adaptation. This transformation is a nodal link of the entire process, its consequences are often striking. Extreme conditions - an event (or a sequence of events) in which a person through its own preparedness, the use of equipment and equipment, as well as attracting additional, pre-prepared resources has the ability to prevent PE, and if necessary, assist yourself and others after emergency. The extreme situation is an event outside the personal human experience, when a person is forced to act (either inactive) with the complete absence of equipment, equipment and initial training. (The basic information on the methods of overcoming the ES is not formalizable in principle, based on the determination of the extreme situation). Most people and animals set in extreme situations, of which there is no exit, do not die, but they acquire one or another degree of adaptability to them and retain their lives until better times. Such stress situations - long periods of hunger, cold, natural disasters, interspecific and intraspecific conflicts - are always widely represented in the natural animal habitat. In the social habitat of a person, the same scheme acts. For a relatively short segment of its history, humanity passed through periods of slavery, serfdom, world wars, but not degraded, demonstrating high efficiency Adaptation to extreme situations. Of course, the price of such adaptation is unnecessarily high, but these undisputed facts inevitably lead to the conclusion that the body must have sufficiently effective specialized mechanisms that limit the stressful response and preventing stressful damage and, most importantly, to preserve life and health. In general, all this corresponds to well-known everyday observation - people who have passed through harsh vital tests acquire a certain resistance to damaging environmental factors, i.e. vital resistant in any extreme situation. Imagine what a miracle happened, and the man today was unexpectedly found itself in the primitive conditions of the existence of humanity. Starting along the wet walls of the cave, under the ringing of their own teeth, our hero with unexpected joy remembers the fire. That's just what to remove firewood? Well, okay, you can block the branches. He is familiar to his pocket. Oh, horror, no matches! Initially, our time traveler is not aware of the depth of his disaster comprehended. But a minute is covered with cold sweat. It does not represent how to make a fire without matches! Fevering attempts to get the fire by friction of wooden sticks about each other, the carving of the sparks does not lead to anything - the extractor persistently does not want to flare up. Further with an inexorable sequence it turns out that the representative of our time can not hunt, not having a gun, fish without fishing and hooks, can not build even the most primitive asylum, does not represent how to protect his briginal body from hundreds of dangers that lurk from all sides. Walking around, it is moving along the ancient forest, occasionally throwing into berries that are completely saturated at all. Our contemporary is doomed. He will survive in autonomous existence. Autonomous existence - human activity (groups of people) without external assistance. The only chance to extend your existence is to ask for help from local Aboriginal. That's that! And then he meets the real owners of that era: the genius of food production, the genius of the breeding of fire. With a huge tension, starting with the most Azov, the unlucky traveler comprehends the science of "survival", with difficulty pulling up to the level of development of primitive person. There is nothing exaggerated in this fantasy. Even astronauts before take their place in the spacecraft, there are hundreds of kilometers along the survival paths - forest wilds, hot sands of the desert. Modern man, Moreover, the rescue professional, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement in the earth and unearthly space, deadlines and geographic location, I must be ready for action in an emergency, without communication with the outside world, when you can only count on yourself. For a person who has fallen into an extreme situation due to unforeseen circumstances, for example, the crash of the aircraft, the crashing of the ship, military personnel, as well as the lost tourists survival is mainly a psychological question, and the most important factor in this case is the desire to survive. Regardless of whether a person remained one or as part of the group, he can manifest emotional factors - experiences due to fear, despair, loneliness and boredom. In addition to these mental factors, the influence of injury, pain, fatigue, hunger and thirst are on the desire to survive. How much time will have to be a person who has fallen into trouble, in the face of autonomous existence in extreme conditions? It depends on a number of reasons resulting in the duration of autonomous existence.

The reasons for the duration of autonomous existence:

Remoteness of the area of \u200b\u200bsearch and rescue work from settlements;

Violation or complete absence of radio communications and other types of communication;

Adverse geographical, climatic and meteorological conditions of the area of \u200b\u200bsearch and rescue work;

The presence of food reserves (or their absence);

Availability in the area of \u200b\u200bsearch and rescue operations of additional search and rescue forces and means.

Objectives and objectives of rescuers for survival

The purpose of the training of rescuers for survival is the formation of sustainable skills in their actions in various conditions of the situation, raising high moral and business qualities, confidence in their forces, reliability of rescue equipment and equipment, search and rescue efficiency.

The basis of survival is strong knowledge in a wide variety of areas, starting with astronomy and medicine, ending with the receptor of cooking dishes from caterpillars and bark of trees.

Survival techniques in each climatogeographic region are different. What can and should do in the taiga is unacceptable in the desert and vice versa.

A person should know how to navigate without a compass, to file a disaster signal, to go to the village, get to get the help, hunting, fishing (including without a gun and the necessary gear) food, provide yourself with water, will be able to defend natural disasters and much Other.

The practical development of survival skills is extremely important. We must not just know how to behave in a particular situation, but also be able to do it. When the situation becomes threatening, it's late to study late. Beamors associated with an increased risk, it is necessary to conduct several emergency field exercises, as close as possible to the actual situation of future routes. It is necessary to calculate in advance theoretically and, if possible, check out almost all possible EFS.

Even today, there are no cases when a person, as a result of the established circumstances, falls into the conditions of autonomous existence, the favorable outcome of which largely depends on its psychophysiological qualities, strong knowledge of the foundations of survival and other factors. The main task of a person in the autonomous situation is to survive. The word "survive" was always used in a completely concrete sense - "stay alive, to survive, protect yourself from death." Under survival, they understand active, reasonable actions aimed at preserving life, health and health in the face of autonomous existence. But the extreme situation is easier to prevent than getting out of it. So do not go anywhere without informing anyone your route and approximate time Return, know, travel terrain, going on the road, take with you: a first-aid kit, comfortable shoes and clothing for the season, cell phone / pager / ration. And in autonomous conditions:

For survival it is necessary:

1. Overcome fear.

Under any circumstances, human survival primarily depends on him. It is not only about his skills. Most often, the situation of autonomy arises unexpectedly, and the first response of anyone who fell into a dangerous situation is fear. But mandatory conditions for safe overcoming all difficulties in the autonomous situation are the manifestation of will, perseverance, competent action. Panic and fear sharply reduce the chances of salvation.

With a short-term external threat, a person acts on the sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation: bounces off from the falling tree, clings when falling for real estate items, trying to hold onto the surface of the water in the threat of drowning. About some kind of willing to speak in such cases. Another thing is long-term survival. In the face of autonomous existence sooner or later comes critical momentWhen exorbitant physical and mental loads, the apparent meaninglessness of further resistance suppress the will. A man is mastered by passivity, indifference. It is no longer frightened by the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived nights, risky crossing. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore dies, without having exhausted until the end of the reserves, without using food reserves.

Survival, based only on biological laws of self-preservation, briefly. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive should be conscious and targeted and should be dictated not to an instinct, but a conscious need.

Fear is an emotional reaction to the danger that may be accompanied by such physical sensations like a tremor, rapid breathing, strong heartbeat. This is a natural reaction, and it is peculiar to every normal person. It is the fear for his life that causes the desire to act in the name of its own salvation. If a person knows how to act, the fear sharpens the reaction, activates thinking. But if he does not represent that it is necessary to take, experiences pain or weakness from blood loss, then fear can lead to stress - excessively strong tension, braking of thoughts and action. These sensations can be so intense that sudden strong fear can lead to death. There are various ways to overcome fear. If a person is familiar with the Outcasting technique, he will be able to relax in a matter of minutes, calm down, impartially analyze the situation. If not, then the thoughts of something will help a person to relax and distract. Good effect Give breathing exercises. You need to make some deep breaths. When a person is experiencing fear or stress, his pulse accelerates, and he begins to breathe very often. To make yourself breathe slowly - it means to convince the body that stress passes, regardless of whether it passed or not.

In addition, a person cannot act successfully if he has no clear goal and a plan for its achievement. Sometimes it seems that professional rescuers, pilots, military in difficult situations act, without thinking. But this is not like this: they simply have ready, often a proven plan, or even several options. At first, a person may seem that he knows nothing and nothing can. But it is only worth splitting the situation and the tasks of component parts, as it turns out that much is under force. A faithful way to overcome fear and confusion is the organization of planned survival actions. For this, a person needs to ask himself a clear installation to act in a possible extreme situation.

2. to assist the affected

(including self-help)

To help well have a first-aid kit, so, going on a journey, it is better to take it with you. A set of necessary medicines depends on climatic conditions. For example, in the desert you need serum against snake poison, cream from sun burns et al. In a tropical first-aid kit there should be a repellent against leeches, insects, powder from fungal diseases, antimalarial preparation. In any first-aid kit should be:

• individual dressing package for each
• bandages
• sterile napkins
• plock (bactericidal and simple)
• manganese
• medical alcohol
• syringe Tubes with morphine or other painkillers
• wide spectrum antibiotics
• nitroglycerine
• corvalol / Validol.
• caffeine solution
• aDRENINALIN SOLUTION
• synthosis Emulsion (with burns / frostbite)
• tetracyclined ointment (when eye inflammation)
• panstocide (for disinfection of water)

Medicines are made individually selected for everyone in sufficient quantities (no less necessary minimum). Names and methods for using drugs must be signed by the indelible pencil / paint. The first-aid kit is carefully accurate, eliminating the possibility of damage to medicines. Scissors or scalpels in their absence can be replaced by a disinfected razor blade.

It is necessary to be able to use medicinal herbs, as well as

distinguish them from poisonous plants. You can only use well-familiar herbs, so, going to another climatic zone, it is better to remember local poisonous plants in advance and at least 5 medicinal / edible. For example, strawberry, celery, bark bark helps for fever. Lilac helps lilac, sunflower, nettle cluster with garlic, rosehip, bark.

To provide medical care, immediately after the accident or, if necessary, a long autonomous existence, skills are needed, so everyone should be able to provide first help. With autonomous survival, the most likely:

• BURN.Obdated place must be cooled, wipe with alcohol solution, impose a dry bandage. The affected place can be trigged with a decoction from the bark of oak, raw potatoes, urine. It is impossible to smear a burn with oil, you can not open the resulting bubbles.
• BLEEDING. The damaged vessel press (artery - from above, except for the arteries of the head, neck) or impose a harness / gulling bandage from undergrades (except wires, ropes, cords). Wound to handle iodine / hydrogen peroxide / green and close the plaster / bandage. Bleeding wound can be attached viburnum berries, rosehip, plantain, aloe. For purulent wounds Apply the blade of the burdock. The harness can not be kept longer than 1.5 hours and 30 minutes. in winter.
• Fractures / dislocation.The damaged limb must be immobilized (for which the tire or stick / ski / board is used). Pain can be reduced by applying ice. Helps a finely chopped onion (with dislocation). It is impossible to take painkillers, it is impossible to try to set the limb.
• Artificial Breathing / Heart Massagewe are necessary when clinical death (no pulse and breathing or convulsive breathing, pupils do not react to light). The help providing air in the mouth / nose of the victim of about 24 times in min. The nose / mouth of the victim should be clamped. The blood circulation can be restored by pressing the chest. The patient should lie on a rigid surface, unbuttoned clothes. Death occurs after 5 minutes. After clinical death, but resuscitation must be continued 20 - 30 minutes. Sometimes it gives effect.
• FAINTING.If breathing and cardiac activity are not broken, it is enough to unbuckled clothes, bring a tampon to the nose with ammonia alcohol, put a person so that the head is lower than the legs.

With any injuries of the victim, it is best to try to deliver to the doctor.

3. Focus on the ground.

When traveling for unfamiliar area is best to have a map. If it is not, you can navigate without it.

The side of the horizon can be determined by the compass, the celestial luminaires, according to some signs of local items. With an uneasy condition, the compass arrow is installed by its northern end in the direction of the northern magnetic pole, respectively, the other end of the arrow will show south. The compass has a circular scale (leb), which is divided into 120 divisions. The price of each division is 3 or 0-50. The scale has a double digitation. Internal applied along the clockwise arrow from 0 to 360 degrees after 15 degrees. To sight to local items and removal of samples on the compass scale on the rotating ring of the compass, a sightseeing and reference pointer is fixed. When working with a compass, it should always be remembered that strong electromagnetic fields or closely arranged metal objects deflect the magnetic arrow from its correct position. Therefore, when determining the directions on the compass, it is necessary to move 40-50 m from the power line, railway cannons, combat vehicles, etc. large metal objects.

It is possible to determine the side of the horizon through the heavenly luminaires:

• by the Sun: the sun at 7 am is in the East, at 13 o'clock in the south, at 19 o'clock in the West;
• through the sun and clock with arrows. To determine the direction in this way, it is necessary to keep the clock in a horizontal position and turn them so that hour hand His sharp end was sent towards the Sun. The straight line dividing the angle between the clockwise direction and the direction to the figure 1 indicates south.
• To move the shade from the vertically supplied stick will show the approximate direction of East-West;

At night, the side of the horizon can be determined by the polar star. To do this, it is necessary to find the constellation of a large bear with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. Through the extreme two stars, the bucket is performed by an imaginary line, and the distance between these stars is postponed on it. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - polar. The direction to it will correspond to the direction north. The side of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local items.

1. Bark most coarse trees on the nordic side.
2. Stones, trees, wooden, tiled and slate roofs from the north side earlier and are richly covered with moss. On coniferous trees, the resin is abundant on the south side. All these signs are useless to look for trees among the thickets. But they are distinctly expressed on a separately standing tree among the meadows or on the edge.
3. The anthills are located on the southern side of trees and stones.
4. The snow melts faster on the southern slope of the hills and mountains.

Magnetic azimuth is used - the horizontal angle, measured by a clockwise arrow from 0 degrees to 360 from the northern direction of the magnetic meridian to the directionally defined direction.

To determine the magnetic azimuth, it is necessary to: stand up to the observed object (guide), release the brake of the compass arrow and, giving the compass a horizontal position, rotate it until the northern end of the arrow stands against zero scale division. Holding a compass in a focused position, turning the rotating cover to send a visitor line passing through a slot and fly in a given direction for this item. The average error of measuring azimuth compass is about 2 degrees. Movement, in the process of which the specified direction is withstanding and accumulates the appointed point is called azimuth movement. The azimuth movement is mainly in the forest, in the desert, at night, in the fog and tundra and other areas of terrain and visibility, impede visual orientation. When moving along azimuth at each turning point of the route, starting with the original, find the right direction of the path on the compass area and move on it by conducting a countdown of the path. When moving along azimuth, there is a need to bypass obstacles that cannot be overcome directly. At the same time come as follows. Notice a landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle in the direction of movement, the distance is determined to it add it to the path traveled. After that, bypassing the obstacle, go to the selected guideline and determine the direction of movement on the compass.

A landmarks are chosen in the mountainous area so that they are distributed in the direction of the divisions not only on the front and in depth, but also in height. In the forest area, keeping the route of movement passing through the dirt roads and buses requires the ability to unmistakably recognize on the ground those of which the path selected on the map passes. It should be borne in mind that forest roads are often little noticeable on the ground, and some of them may not be shown on the maps. At the same time, it is possible to meet the road unsounded on the map, at the same time well-buried. As landmarks in the forest, roads, crossings, crossroads, and the development of roads and pros, rivers and streams, Polyany crossing the route. The prospects are absorbed usually in mutually perpendicular directions, as a rule, in the northern direction, respectively, the West-East.

There are several ways to measure corners and distances on the ground.

1. Measurement of corners on the ground with binoculars.

In the field of view of binoculars, there are two perpendicular occasions for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. The magnitude (price) of one large division corresponds to 0-10, and small - 0-05. To measure the angle between two directions, it is necessary, looking into the binoculars, combine any barcode of the corner scale with one of these directions and calculate the number of divisions to the second directions and calculate the number of divisions to the second direction. Multiplying, then, this countdown on the price of fission, we obtain the value of the measured angle in the "thousands".

1. Measurement of angles using a ruler.

In some conditions, the situation may occur when there is no binoculars at hand, it can measure angular values \u200b\u200busing a ruler. To do this, it is necessary to keep the line in front of the eye level 50 cm. One millimeter of the line will correspond to 0-02. The accuracy of the measurement of the angles in this way depends on the skills in maintaining distances from the eyes (50 cm), which requires a certain training.

3. Measurement of corners with screwdrivers.

Instead of a ruler, you can use various items whose sizes are well known: matchboxes, pencil, fingers and palms. You can measure the corners using a compass. Measurement of corners on the area is preparation to determine the distance to the area. To determine the distances on the ground, various methods and devices are applied. Often, people are forced to determine the distances in various ways: eye or on the measured angular value of items on the ground, according to the speedometer of the machine, the steps, for the average speed of movement.

Eyemerbly is the main method and the easiest when determining the distances available for everyone. This method does not give high accuracy in determining distances, but with a certain training, you can achieve accuracy up to 10 m. To develop your eyes, you need to constantly exercise in determining the distances on the ground.

One of the ways to measure distances on the area is the use of distances known by the length of the locality (power lines - the distance between the supports, the distance between the communication lines, etc.).

For rough estimation of distance distances, you can use the following data:

For each person, this table can be clarified by them.

Determination of distances over the angular sizes of objects is one of the main methods for determining distances and has quite high accuracy. To determine the distances on angular values, it is necessary to know the linear dimensions of the local subject, determine the angle under which it is visible and then by the formula to determine the distance to this item:

D \u003d 1000 * B.

W.

In this formula: D - range

B - height

Y - angle in the "thousandth" under which the subject is visible; 1000 - constant coefficient.

Measurement distance steps.

It is necessary to know each commander that the person's step is approximately 0.75 m., But it is inconvenient to produce calculations with this amount and, therefore, it is assumed that a pair of steps is 1.5 m. In this case, it is much more convenient to calculate the calculations. With this method, the accuracy of the distance determination may be 98%.

Determination of the speed of movement speed and on the speedometer machine is advisable to produce in cases of movement. One way to determine distances may be a way of sound, flashes. Knowing that the speed of sound in the air is 330 m / s i.e. Rounded 1 km. For 3 seconds. You can determine the distance by conducting small calculations. In some cases, the distance can be determined by hearing, i.e. According to audibility of various sounds. From the experience of evaluating the hearingness of various sounds it becomes clear that:

• movement in walking in the dirt road can be heard at a distance of 300 m, and when moving along the highway - 600m.
• movement of cars on the dirt road - 500 m., Along the highway - up to 1000m.
• Loud screams - 0.5 - 1 km.
• Ringing stakes, cutting forest - 300-500m.

These data are very approximate and dependent on human hearing.

At the heart of any method of determining distances is the ability to choose the landmarks on the ground and use them as labels indicating the necessary directions, points and frontiers. The guidelines are called well-visible objects on the terrain and details of the relief, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of the objectives and other objects. Landmarks are selected if possible evenly. Selected benchmarks can be numbered by selecting the direction, or give a conditional name. To specify its location on the ground relative to the guideline, the direction and distance from it are determined.

1. Try to get out

It is especially important to choose as soon as possible if they are wounded among those who are wounded or if lost in the danger zone. It is difficult to move around among the collaps and Burzelov, in a busy, overgrown with shrub. The apparent similarity of the setting - trees, folds of the area, etc. - can completely disorient the person, and it is often moving in a circle, unaware of his mistake.

To withstand a selected direction, usually outlines any good noticeable landmark every 100-150 m route. This is especially important if the way blocks the blockage or a dense shrub thicket, which forced to deviate from the direct direction. An attempt to go across is always fraught with injury, which will exacerbate the already complex position of a fearing disaster. But it is especially difficult to make transitions in the zone of swamps. It is not easy to find a safe pedestrian footpath among the english green space.

A special danger in the swamp is the so-called windows - sections of transparent water on a gray-green surface of the marshes. Sometimes their dimensions reach tens of meters. It is necessary to overcome the swamp with maximum caution and necessarily armed with a long durable sixth. It is kept horizontally at the chest level. Having failed, in no case cannot be flounded. It is necessary to get out slowly, drawing on the pole, without making sharp movements, trying to give the body a horizontal position. For short-term recreation in the transition through a swamp, you can use solid rock outputs. Water obstacles, especially rivers with a rapid flow and stony bottom, overcome, without removing shoes, for greater stability. Before making the next step, the bottom of the sixth. It is necessary to move, sideways, to the flow, so that the flow did not hit the foot.

In winter, you can move around the rivers of frozen rivers, while observing the necessary precautions. So, it must be remembered that the flow usually destroys the ice from below, and it becomes especially thin under the snowdrifts of the climbing banks, which in the rivers rivers with sandy shames are often formed, which, freezing, turn into peculiar dams. At the same time, the water finds the output usually along the shore under the snowdrifts, near the Korhog, rocks, where he is faster.

In cold weather, the floods are soaring, reminding the smoke of human housing. But much more often hidden under deep snow, and they are difficult to detect. Therefore, all obstacles to river ice better bypass; In places of river bends, it is necessary to stay away from the rippletish coast, where the flow is faster and therefore the ice is thinner.

Often, after freezing the river, the water level decreases so quickly that pockets are formed under thin ice, representing a greater danger to a pedestrian. On the ice that seems not strong enough, and there is no other path, we are crawled. In the spring, the ice is the finest in areas overgrown with Russian, in flooded bushes.

If there is no hard confidence in the ability to quickly get out of the situation that has been created, and the situation does not require immediate care from the scene, it is better to stay in place, divorce the fire, to build a shelter from undergraded materials. This will help well protect against weather and for a long time to maintain forces. In addition, in the conditions of parking, it is much easier to extract food. In some cases, this tactic will facilitate the actions of the search and rescue service that received information about the incident in a particular area. Having decided to "stay in place", you need to make a plan for further actions in which to provide for the necessary activities.

4 Square shelter

Organization Overnight is a labor-intensive matter. First you need to find a suitable area. First of all it should be dry. Secondly, to accommodate the best location from the stream, in an open place to always have a stock of water at hand.

The simplest refuge from wind and rain is manufactured by linking individual elements of the base (frame) with thin roots of ate, branches of willow, tundra birch. Natural cavities in the ruptured bank of the river make it possible to comfortably sit on them so that the scene is between the fire and the vertical surface (break, rock), which serves as a heat reflector.

When preparing a space for sleep, two holes are burned - under the thigh and under the shoulder. Can be touched on a litter from a fir facothy in deep Jam, dug or thawed to the ground with a large bone. Here, in the pit, it follows the whole night to keep the fire in the fire in order to avoid a serious cold. In a winter taiga, where the thickness of the snow cover is significant, it is easier to arrange a refuge in the pit at the tree. In a heavy frost, you can build a snowy simplest hut in a loose snow. For this, the snow is crushed into a bunch, its surface is sealing, watered with water and allow it to freeze. Then the snow is burned out of the heap, and in the remaining dome they do a small hole for the chimney. Divorced inside the fire places the walls and makes a strong whole design. Such a hut retains heat. You can not climb under the clothes with your head, because from breathing the material reuses and freezes. It is better to close the face of the objects of clothing, which are later easily dried. Capacity is possible from the burning fire carbon monoxide And you need to take care of the constant influx of fresh air to the burning center.

A temporary shelter can serve a canopy, salas, earthlock, chum. The choice of the type of shelter will depend on the skill, abilities, hard work and, of course, the physical state of people, since there is no shortage in the construction material. However, the more severe the weather, the more reliable and the warmer should be housing. Take care so that the future housing is quite spacious. There is no need to adhere to the principle "in tesne, but not in the offense."

Before proceeding to construction, it is necessary to clear the platform well, and then, attaching how much building material it takes, it is necessary to prepare it in advance: to cut the rods, to cut the fabric, branches, collect moss, cut the bark. So that the pieces of the bark are obtained quite large and durable, on the trunk of larch make deep vertical cuts, to the wood itself, at a distance of 0.5-0.6 m from each other. After that, the stripes are cut from above and below with large cloths of centimeters of 10-12 in the diameter, and then carefully tear off the bark with an ax or a knife machete.

Fig. 10. Chalash, canopy and bonfires: A - Slashas Double combined and star "Star"; B - the simplest canopy and fire "Pyramid"

Fig. II. Trench, salas and fire: A - snowy trench near the tree; B - Slashes Diva and Bonfire "Taiga *

Fig. 12. Tent type "Chum"

In the warm season, it is possible to restrict ourselves to the construction of the simplest canopy (Fig. 10, b). Two half-one-meter cola thick with arm with developments on the end are riveted into the ground at a distance of 2.0-2.5 m from each other. The fork is laid a thick pole - carrying bar. At an angle of approximately 45-60 ° at an angle, 5-7 stories are led by a rope or a vine, the tarpaulin, parachute or any other tissue stretch over. The edges of the awning are sweeping from the sides of the canopy and tie to the bruse laid in the base of the canopy. From the husterie or dry moss make a litter. Canopy pour out a shallow groove to protect against water in case of rain.

More convenient for housing a rowal chalash (Fig. 10, A and Fig. 11, b). Having driven the rack and putting a carrying bar on them, the thrills are placed at it at an angle of 45-60 ° on both sides, and they are tied to each slope for three or four rods parallel to the ground - rafters. Then, starting at the bottom, the laps are laid on the rafter, branches with thick foliage or pieces of cortex so that each subsequent layer, like a tile, covered the lower up to half. The front part, the entrance, can be drilled by a piece of fabric, and the rear cover with one or two jersle and weave the pacide.

With a high snow cover at the foot of a large tree, you can dug a "snow trench" (Fig. 11, a). From above, the trench is covered with a tarp cloth or a parachute cloth, and the bottom is lined with several layers of the bag.

1. Get fire

Bonfire in autonomous existence - it's not just warm, it is dry clothes and shoes, hot water and food, protection against gnus and an excellent signal for the search helicopter. And most importantly, the fire is a battery of cheerfulness, energy and active activity. But before breeding fire, all measures should be taken to warn forest fire. This is especially important in the dry, hot season. Place for the fire is chosen away from coniferous, and especially dried trees. Carefully clean the space on the meter-one and a half around the dry grass, moss and shrub. If the soil of a peatmanist, so that the fire does not penetrate through herbal cover and did not cause a peat fire, pillows pillow from sand or land.

In winter, at high snow cover, the snow is thoroughly covered, and then build a platform from several trees.

To get the fire it is necessary take advantage of fire, kosk silf. The fire can serve as any steel subject, as a last resort, the same Iron Colechant. The fire carve on with sliding blows on the silicon so that the sparks fall on the clutch - dry moss, crushed dry leaves, newspaper, wool, and the like. Fire can be mined friction. For this purpose, onions, drill and support are made: Onions - from a dead trunk of a young birch or nuts 2 - 3 cm thick and a piece of rope as a tale; Drill - from a pine stick 25 - 30 cm long, a pencil thick, pointed from one end; The support is cleaned of the crust and drill a hole with a knife 1 - 1.5 cm. Drill, wrapped once theater, is inserted with an acute end to the well around which the clutch is placed. Then, pressing the drill with the palm of the left hand, the onions perpendicular to the drill move right quickly. In order not to damage the palm, there is a piece of wood with a piece of fabric, tree bark or put on a glove. As soon as the clutch clutches, it should be blown and put in the extractor, harvested in advance. To achieve success, you should remember the three rules: the clutch should be dry, it is necessary to act in a strict sequence and most importantly, to show patience and perseverance. For cooking and drying clothes, the Bonfire "Shalash", which gives a large, smooth flame, or "star" out of 5-8 arranged silent stems. They are ignited in the center and shifted as they are combustion. For heating during the night or in cold weather on a thick trunk, the fan is stacked by 3-4 trolics of the fusion. Such a fire is called Taiga. For heating for a long time, the Kostroma Nodeni is used. Two dry barrels laid one on the other and fix at the ends on both sides of the stakes. The wedges are inserted between the trunks and the crossing is laid. As the wood burns, the ashes and ash are purified from time to time. Leaving the place of parking, glowing coals need to thoroughly, bay their water or throwing the earth. To mining fire in the absence of matches or lighters, one of the ways can be used, which has long been well-known humanity before their invention.

1. Get food and water

A person who produced in autonomous existence, must take the most energetic measures to ensure itself with nutrition by collecting edible wilderness plants, fishing, hunting, i.e. Use everything that nature gives. In our country, over 2000 plants grow, partially or fully suitable for food. When collecting plant giftscare must be taken. About 2% of plants may cause heavy, and even deadly poisoning. To prevent poisoning, it is necessary to distinguish such poisonous plants as the worsion of the eyes, the wolf lyco, the milestone is poisonous (Cycut), Belen Gorky, etc. Food poisoning Causes of poisonous substances contained in some mushrooms: pale toes, mushroom, false okey, false chanterelle, etc. From the use of unfamiliar plants, berries, fungi is better to refrain. With a forced use of them in food, it is recommended to eat at no more than 1 - 2 g of the food mass, if possible, large quantity Water (the plant poison contained in such a proportion will not cause serious harm to the organism). Wait 1 -2 hour. If there are no signs of poisoning (nausea, vomiting, pain in the stomach, dizziness, intestinal disorders), you can eat additionally 10-15 g. A day can be eaten without restrictions. The indirect sign of the edacy of the plant can serve: fruits, crucified by birds; Many bones, scraps of peel at the foot of fruit trees; bird litter on branches, trunks; Plants, ablosable animals; Fruits discovered in nests and nora. Unfamiliar fruits, bulbs, tubers, etc. It is advisable to slaughter. Cooking destroys many organic poisons.

There are many trees and shrubs that give edible fruits: Ryabina, actinidium, honeysuckle, rosehip, etc. From edible wild plants, you can use the stems and leaves of Borshevik and the manner, the tubers of the grains, the rhizomeness of Rhoze, as well as a variety of edible mushrooms. Food can be used garden or grape snails. They are boiled or roasted. They seek mushrooms to taste. Snails without shells - slugs, too, you need to pre-cook or fry.

Suitable for food dolls of single bees in blackberry stems, raspberries or elderberries, dolls of the woodcutter beetle, which can be found in the stumps, logs, oak lanes. The larvae can be eating, pre-having cutting off the rear end and rolling in water. At the bottom of the rivers and lakes in the winter there are bivalve seashells of toothless and pekloves, quite suitable for food. In standing water there are snails with curled sink coils and ponds. The high-calorie food source is the dolls of ants or, as they are called, ant eggs. In the warm season, ant eggs, similar to white or yellowish rice grains, are found in the anthills in the surface itself. For the collection of "mining" near the anthill, on a plot lit by the Sun, cleared the platform 1 x 1 m and spread a piece of fabric on it, wrapped the edges and laying down a few small twigs under the bottom. Then top The anthill is broken and scattered with a thin layer on the fabric. After 20-30 minutes, the ants are dragging all the pupae under the wrapped edges of the fabric, saving them from the sun. Under autonomous existence fishingPerhaps the most affordable way to provide yourself with nutrition. Fish has a greater energy value than plant fruits, and less laborious than hunting. Fishing tackle can be made of girlfriend: the fishing line - from the loose shoes of the shoe, the threads, pulled out of the clothes, a rope running, hooks - from pins, earrings, hairpins from icons, "invisible", and glitters - from metal and pearl buttons, coins and T.P.

The fish meat is permissible to eat raw, but it is better to cut it into narrow stripes, dry them in the sun, so it will be tastier and preserved longer. In order to avoid poisoning, fish must be followed by certain rules. It is impossible to eat fish covered with spines, spikes, sharp growths, skin ulcers, fish not covered with scales, deprived of side fins that have neo

Natural emergencies

About the threat of Natural Emergencies The population is usually observed by the media. But in some cases they may arise suddenly. The rules of conduct in all these cases are detailed in the textbook. In practical classes using computer training programs are usually practiced:

When learning using a computer training program, it is necessary not only to use theoretical Materialwhich is set out in the training program and in the textual manual "Protection of the population and economic facilities in emergency situations. Radiation Safety »2 Edition. Part 2. Survival system and protection of emergencies.

Technogenic emergencies

Technogenic emergencies manifest themselves, as a rule, suddenly as a result of an accident or disaster at the object of business or social sphere. The most common technogenic emergencies are transport accidents and disasters, accidents and disasters with a release of hazardous poisonous substances, fires and explosions on facilities.

Features of survival in cases of chemically dangerous objects. About an accident or catastrophe at an object with an emissions of hazardous toxic substances, the population is notified with the inclusion of a siren for 3 minutes, followed by the transmission on the radio and television of information on the emergence of an emergency with guidelines. The information usually indicates the territory, streets and sites of the city (settlement), where there will be infection, after what time, degree of danger and advice on protection. There may be two options for recommendations: or to hide in shelters, administrative and residential premises or evacuated.

Consider the rules of behavior and actions of a person for two cases: when the type of poisonous substance is unknown and when the type of poisonous substance is known. In the first case, a complete guarantee of protection cannot be achieved, but in some cases, the results may be positive. In all cases, it is necessary to seek help in the "Salvation Service 01", but before the arrival of the rescuers, it is necessary to take all measures to survive in the conditions of chemical infection.

In the event that a person is at home, then felt the smell of an unknown poisonous gas coming through windows and open vents, take the following measures self-defense:

In the event that the authorities recommend evacuation, then leave the zone of infection by the recommended streets or to the side, perpendicular to the wind direction, is preferably on an exalted, well-ventilated area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain, a distance of at least 1.5 km, where it is necessary to be before receiving further orders. It is necessary to go out in a gas mask, but if it is missing, then to protect the respiration organs, you can use the infringeable products from the tissues moistened with water.

Common principles emergency care With lesions, dangerous poisonous substances are:

In the body poisoning, well-known toxic substances need to be performed by the well-known recommendations in teaching using computer learning
Grams.

Features of survival in fires and explosions at objects.

Explosions and fires at business facilities, in residential arrays occur, as a rule, suddenly. This leads to the defeat of people, destruction, fires. In this case, before the arrival of the rescuers and fire units of the Ministry of Emergency Situations, citizens are obliged to start saving people who were in the dodgers, in the gazed and smokers that have been injured and injured from fragments of collapsing buildings and techniques that have gained burns and poisoning. At the same time, in the process of work, the population should know the basic rules for the rescue of people and material values, comply with security measures, be able to provide first aid.

Rescue people from the dawns. In the case when the struck is near the surface of the spawned under small fragments, then the blockage disassemble from above manually, sequentially freeing the head, torso, legs from the fragments. After that, the victim is the first medical care, depending on the state of the victim.

When the victim is deeply in the rods under the wreckage of a large structure, when disassembling, it is necessary to exercise special caution so that there is no additional collapse, in which people will suffer in the dawn. Therefore, it is better to make galleries from sides.

When searching for victims in burning, tanned and smokers, it is necessary to strictly observe the safety measures, discussed earlier, in particular, in the absence of insulating gas masks, it is necessary to put the dressings moistened in water, to comply with the rules for extinguishing fires.

In the process of work, it is necessary to pay attention to the sections of the destroyed object, where repeated explosions from gas leakage, fires from the ignition of materials are possible, take measures to prevent them.

Features of survival in emergency situations caused by transport accidents and disasters

Every citizen can be a passenger of any transport, and individual citizens may be both drivers.
Both those and others can become victims of accidents or disasters when operating transport.

In case of accident and disaster of each type of transport, there are features of survival. When working out the survival methods using a computer training program, it is necessary to take into account. However, there is a lot and in common. For example, with fires in cars and aircraft, it is necessary to protect the respiratory organs with a cloth moistened in water.

Biolean social emergency situations

Every person should know infectious diseases typical of this territory, signs of diseases, the ability to pre-recognize them, if possible, warn and be able to provide first medical care before the arrival of the doctor.

About the emergence infectious diseases The population is usually notified through the media. Quarantine or observation can be announced. During this period, the population should take special security measures. The main ones are:

It is impossible without a special permit to leave the place of residence (concerns some particularly dangerous diseases); without extreme need not to leave the house; Twice a day (in the morning and evening) measure the body temperature of its and family members. With increasing temperature and poor well-being, isolate yourself from others, go to a separate room or extinguishable with shirma; report the disease to the medical institution and call a doctor; Pack the mouth, nose and wearing a gauze mask; be sure to carry out daily wet cleaning of the room using disinfecting solutions; Strictly follow the rules of personal hygiene, clean your hands thoroughly, especially before meal; Water drink only boiled. Raw vegetables and fruits after washing to dress boiling water; In the threat of gastrointestinal diseases less drinking water; Before the doctor's arrival, to collect a patient in a separate dishes, to close it carefully and transfer it to the medical institution; Do not rush using antibiotics and other specific preparations, and give medicines that facilitate headache and antipyretic means if the body temperature is high; Do not leave a patient without observation; The patient should have bed regime: the disease suffered on the legs is dangerous complications; Persons communicating with patients are categorically prohibited to go to work, visit other apartments. In cases, if you do not know what is sick a member of your family, act as in an infectious disease; Select a patient a separate bed, a towel, regularly wash them, wash the dishes; destroy rodents and insects, especially flies, trash to burn; With hospitalization of the patient, the disinfection is in the apartment: Bed linen and dishes boil in 2% soda solution or soak 2 hours in a 2-percent solution of disinfectant. Then wash the dishes hot water, underwear to try, to ventilate the room.

The centuries-old experience of mankind shows that psychologically trained people are able to cope quickly and without panic to cope in emergency situations with fear, excitement, anxiety and withstand danger. Those who do not know how to manage their psyche, most often turn out to be helpless before the impending misfortune. Fear and panic are paralyzed by the will and consciousness of a person, cause a disorderly, inorganized behavior. In a panic, a person looks like a trapped animal, which his unconscious actions ruins himself.

Psychologically trained people- These are those who are constantly working on improving their attention, the development of their sensations (especially visual and auditory), to improve their memory, thinking, controlling emotions and will. Science The psychology with which you met in biology lessons can offer a lot of exercises for the development of all listed qualities. However, it is important not only to know and want, but also need to be engaged. Psychological improvement,Because it is from this that it depends on your opportunity to survive in various dangerous situations.

The basis of human character is its temperament. Psychologists under TemperamentUnderstand the characterization of a person by intensity, speed, tempo and the rhythm of its mental processes and states.

Highlight 4 main types of man on temperament.

Sanguinik- man balanced, active, movable, easily experienced troubles and failures, practical;

Phlegmatic person- a person with slow reactions, imperturbable, constant in its feelings, measured in action and speech;

Choleric- a person excitable, impulse, unrestrained in emotions, with frequent mood shifts, quickly speaking;

Melancholic- A man with a weak type of nervous system, very impressionable, touchy, deeply all worries, but can fine and perceive more information than others, which is faster thanks faster.

Images of musketeers from the famous novel by A. Duma "Three Musketeers" became a long time classic in practical psychology. Therefore, to determine the 1st swap type of temperament, decide, Kyy most of all you like from 4 musketeers if you are most likely a choleric: if silent, closed and mysterious ATOS, then Melancholic: Friendly, self-sufficient and balanced port - Phlegmatic: discreet, purposeful and reasonable Aramis - Sanguine

In emergency situations, people depending on temperament may behave differently. For example, in dangerous situations CholericIt will begin to feverishly rushing, nervous and, if he does not be able to take himself under control, most likely a panic is likely. MelancholicFlies in deep despondency and begins to represent possible terrible paintings that can happen. It. As a rule, it prevents him from take the right decision. Phlegmatic personBecause of its inhibition, the danger is most often underestimated. SanguinikMost likely it will be able to quickly overcome his fear and will even find the strength to make fun of what is happening. But at the same time he does not have enough sensitivity to the near.

But if the temperament is given to us by nature, then the character is that. What we form in ourselves. What a person is older than he has more life experience, the higher the formation of its character depends on him. Therefore, if with any, even the most insignificant danger, you are accustomed to leave responsibility, constantly hide behind someone's back, then you have a reasonable character. And in case of danger, when no one will be near, he might lead you. Learn to make decisions and competently act independently in emergency situations!

Any emergency situations of a natural or anthropogenic nature are terrible first of all. that they are usually sudden. It is impossible to get used to emergency situations and completely secure yourself from them. Almost all people who survived them. Have a strong psychological trauma. But nonetheless, Remember:You can help yourself survive if you oppose the emergency in your knowledge, skills, willpower, character and abilities!Exit an emergency, if it still has been found, must be found. The main thing is to have confidence in this. But she does not educate her a book, no film, nor conversation, at least the other and the third will benefit. Need an experiment and experience.

From the media, from this and other books you receive knowledge of certain emergencies, about the rules of safe behavior in the threat of their occurrence and during their action. If a person in advance suggests the possibility of a certain emergency, thinks over the procedure, then, if such a situation has occurred, this person feels more confident and calmer.

However, sometimes destructive force Natural disasters, the consequences of emergency situations are so great that even seeing species hardened, psychologically trained people sometimes be difficult to cope with their emotions and feelings. Therefore, in the threat of life and health, people, regardless of the nature and type of temperament, can to one degree or another to survive the attacks of panic. During panic in fear, people can perform ridiculous and sometimes dangerous for themselves and surrounding actions cannot consciously take measures to self-slip and mutual assistance.

PanicIt has both physiological and psychological manifestations. TO Physical manifestations of panicRelate:

Strong heartbeat:

Abundant sweating:

Vomiting and stomach disorder (the so-called "bearish disease");

Suturing of the chest, the inability to breathe with a complete breast;

Trembling in the whole body;

Numbness of limbs and tingling in the body;

Bad sleep or insomnia;

Stress and pain in the muscles;

Fast fatiguability. Psychological manifestations of panic are:

Clouding consciousness, feeling that you go crazy;

Unreal perception of what is happening; The body becomes like not yours;

The feeling of what you die or is about to die;

Swift; The person is at the I wound of the psychological breakdown;

Puggy;

A person cannot focus or completely disconnect from what is happening.

Remember:With a panic you can cope!Learn to perform the following exercises:

Relax the muscles of the face, limbs, the whole body;

Quietly and deep breathe:

You must inspire your desired condition (there are other exercises with which you will get acquainted in the lessons of biology).

The mental state of people in emergency situations is characterized as stressful. Stress- This is the condition of the body that occurs under the influence of significant or duration of adverse effects (the so-called "stressors").

On the adverse effects of the most different kind, causing strong negative emotions, experiences, excitement (fear, humiliation, pain, illness - their own and loved ones, loss, the death of loved ones, social shocks, epidemics, catastrophes), the body corresponds to the corresponding reaction. Stress is a phenomenon in which both psychological and physiological mechanisms. The creator of the theory of stress Canadian scientist G. Selre determines it as a set of genetically programmed non-specific reactions of the organism, primary individually preparing individuals to physical activity (resistance or flight).

With weak negative impacts on the body that does not cause negative reaction, a person fully copes with ordinary protective actions. The stress arises when the influence of the stimulus (stressor) exceeds the adaptive capabilities of the body and the psyche.

Physiological mechanism of stressIs that. That under the action of a strong stimulus in the blood is ejected certain hormones. Under their impact, the mode of operation of the heart changes, the blood pressure increases, the pulse rate is changed, change protective properties The organism (for example, the blood coagulation increases). Psychological mechanism of stressIt is manifested in the need to make a particularly responsible decision, a sharp change of behavior strategy, etc.

In the development of stress, 3 stages are distinguished:

1. Stage anxiety.It continues from several hours to 20 days. Includes Phase shockAND Countercurrent.During

The last phase is mobilizing the protective forces and capabilities of the body.

2. Stage of resistance.It is characterized by increased resistance of the body to various impacts.

3. Statlation stage (recovery).If the stress level exceeds protective backup capabilities, the body's condition can deteriorate up to his death.

Unfortunately, stress is an integral part of our life. It is simply impossible to avoid its occurrence. However, the degree of response to it from various people is different. Some react to stress actively, the effectiveness of their activities continues to grow to a certain limit (the so-called "Lion stress"), while other responses are predominantly passive, and the level of activity is sharply reduced ("rabbit stress").

Often, the risk waiting process is much more unpleasant, exhausting, requiring a large stress than the hazard itself. It is proved that when there are many stresses in a person, the reserves and protective capabilities of its body are gradually reduced. As a result, a number of so-called psychosomatic diseases are developing (hypertension, ulcerative disease, cardiovascular diseases, heart arrhythmias, up to heart attack and stroke).

Special studies allowed psychologists to describe various forms of stressful manifestations in people after the emergencies experienced by them.

Hysterics Manifests itself in a sharp motion excitation: a person is quickly moving or even runs without any visible goal; I make incomprehensible sounds, shouting something, exclaims; Laughs or bitterly crying for any insignificant occasion; becomes aggressive, over-excited; quickly excited.

Stupor - The second, no less common form of people's behavior in emergency situations. Such a stress reaction is manifested in the form of immobilization, stupid. A man who is in a stupor is often silent, standing or sits motionless, touching, raising. The glance is directed to nowhere.

Apathy Or Depression It manifests itself in humans, sleep disorder, loss of appetite, increased irritability, in complete indifference to all that is happening. A person who is in state of apathy suffers from dizziness, often falls into fainting.

If there is no nearby professional psychologistscapable of helping people return to normal well-being and behavior, they must do it themselves. In addition, in an extreme situation, the human body exhibits its hidden opportunities - unusual physical endurance, strength, excerpt. This is peculiar defensive reaction The body is on the stressful situation.

It is known, for example, that a person in ordinary life uses intellectual and physical opportunities Its organism is only 10-20%. In history, there are cases when the human body showed in the critical moments of life: a young mother raised huge slabs of overlaps with bare hands to extract their child from under the rubble; soldier-AR Gillerist in the period of the Great Patriotic War One drained the artillery tool on the high mountain, whereas in the usual setting of Eh, the gun was hardly moved into a special tractor; An elderly woman endured a chest of drawers from a burning house, which after a fire with difficulty raised the 2nd men.

To make it easier to cope with your mental state with an emergency and not to succumb to a panic, you must follow the following rules. "

Do not despair, being alone or surrounded by people in the same mental state;

Acceptable assistance to adults in eliminating the effects of emergency situations (in the analysis of the bumps, the provision of first medical care, etc.), it will distract you, especially if people have suffered as a result of an emergency. Remember:Caring for someone- Here is the salvation in a severe psychological situation!

Spend more time in society those easier to suffer danger, make together collaboration;

Arrange the day of the day;

Avoid one who sows panic, talks about the hopelessness of the situation, try to isolate panickers;

If you still were alone, then voicate everything that happens around you, express your thoughts out loud (the so-called "Chukchi method"); If you can't talk - write; Speak out yourself and let me speak to someone who also found himself in a similar situation;

Do psychological training on improving your will and ability to manage your emotions.

Try to understand your own and forgive other people's mistakes;

Decide with your life values \u200b\u200band priorities, appreciate your strength and weaknesses, put toast toast but real goals sometimes incredible efforts are spent on incorrectly selected goals,

Be more tolerant and generous to the actions of the other Chede Avoid uncomfortable life situations and people, communication with which you are unpleasant life is too short to spend time on them1

Rejoice to communicate S. active people, feeling the energy that they emit1

Trust yourself, appreciate your life progress even if there are very few

5.1. Concept of human habitat. Normal and extreme conditions

vitality. Survival

5.1.1. Human habitat concept

A person during his life is surrounded by the objects of the material world, which make up the environment environment, or human habitat (vital environment). It consists of inanimate (land, water, plants, buildings, tools, etc.) and animate (people, animals and animals and Dr.) objects.

The content of human habitat depends on the place, time and conditions. The habitat of a person in the southern regions of the country differs from that in the northern regions due to the difference in climatic conditions. At the same time, the climate itself changes over time, the temperature of the atmospheric air is during the year and day. Particularly significant differences in habitat in everyday life and production.

Human domestic habitat is determined by the conditions of the person's stay in their home, on the lap of nature (recreation, work on the household plot, etc.), in in public places, on the street, in transport, if this is not related to the fulfillment by the person of his official duties.

The human habitat is determined by the working conditions of a person in production, in an organization, institution. In most cases, the conditions of the production environment are less favorable for a person than household. However, in some cases, the impact on a person of some factors of these media may be close. For example, impact solar radiation At a person resting under the sun, close to such for the worker performing work in the open air on the same latitudes and under the same weather conditions.

In the process of human life, the habitat has a certain influence. For example, atmospheric air can heat or cool the human body, the falling subject may cause injury. The prolonged exposure to the environment of one character ultimately cause certain changes in the human body, and under their influence, a person adapts to the environment, changing physiologically and psychologically.

From the point of view of exposure to humans, the environment can be represented as consisting of factors that are divided into natural (natural) and anthropogenic, or artificial, generated by human activities. In the historical aspect first existed only natural factors. Later, anthropogenic factors began to join them.

A number of human habitat factors can have adverse effects on it.

Natural adverse factors are essential in the household environment. For life, for example, a climatic factor is essential, largely determining the living conditions in the room and relaxing outdoors. Of great importance is the water medium supplying a person with drinking water, irrigating gardens, but at the same time can bring big destruction and victims (floods, storms on the sea, etc.). Equally important in the life of harmful natural substances (dust, poisonous gases et al.), Temperature factor (burns, frostbite), etc.

With the development of human society, the role of anthropogenic adverse factors increases. Currently, they are as important as natural factors. Enough to remember defeats from electric current, Falling people with them erected structures, gas poisoning, including carotry, and many other examples. In the mining industry, for example, the main danger represents collaps mountain breeds In the workings as a result of human activity in the depths of the Earth, as well as vehicles in mines: their share accounts for about half of the deadly accidents occurring in coal mines.

What are the factors of habitat are the human body unfavorable? When answering this question, it is necessary to proceed from the following.

The development of the human body has adapted (adapted) to some medium values \u200b\u200bof habitat factors and to a specific range of their changes relative to the average values. But in the course of the body's life, the exit of environmental factors for the usual limits is possible. This is not used to such values. The greater the deviation of the values \u200b\u200bof the factor from the usual limits, the more it is unfavorable. We come to the conclusion: the factor of habitat is unfavorable, the meaning of which is periodically, but not often, it goes for the habitual range of its values. For example, for the inhabitants of medium latitudes of Russia, the temperature of the outer air from + 20 ° C to -20 ° C is familiar. Their body adapted to this diagnosis of temperatures and in such temperature conditions operates on average normally, a person feels comfort (convenience). The temperature of + 30 ° C or - 25 ° C is perceived already discomfort, and with large deviations from the usual temperature range, adverse effects can occur. Consequently, B. this example Adverse values \u200b\u200bof the factories of the factor can be considered the temperature above + 25 ° C and below -20 ° C. If deviations in the range from + 25 ° C to -20 ° C are regular, but small (for example, deviation from upper border The usual temperatures on + 5 ° C and from the bottom on -5 ° C) is getting used to them and they will expand the range of comfortable temperatures. Hence the conclusion: any factor of the environment may be unfavorable. For example, oxygen in atmospheric air is necessary for a person's life. Its content in the air is about 21%, and the human body is adapted to this content. With a significant decrease in (increasing), the oxygen content in the air in humans begin changes in the functions of a number of organs that can lead to serious disorders and even death. Thus, oxygen is a favorable factor for human life if its content is within 21%, with a significant drawback or excess, it becomes an unfavorable factor. A similar example can be brought with atmospheric pressure: normal atmospheric pressure is favorable for humans, its values \u200b\u200bthat differ significantly from normal, make atmospheric pressure by an unfavorable factor.

Therefore, it is not necessary to speak not about the favorable factors of the environment, but about the adverse values \u200b\u200bof factors. The nature and degree of influence on the living organism of a particular environmental factor depend on the quantitative value of this factor. The farther the value of the factor under consideration from the zone of its comfortable values, the unfavorable effect of the factor on a living organism.

5.1.2. Normal and extreme conditions of vital. Survival

Comfortable or closeness of human habitat factors take place, as a rule, normal Life man in peacetime. They are often called normal vital conditions.

Normal livestock conditions provide for the livelihood of the population for normal life, life of peacetime. In these conditions, almost every Russian lives.

In case of emergency situations, people who are in the emergency area may turn out to be without beds, water, food and medical care. Solve the most important issues of the affected population in these extreme conditions are quickly and in the necessary volumes in most cases is extremely difficult, because the system of collateral will be destroyed or its ability to fully satisfy all the needs of the victims will be insufficient.

In such cases, it turns out to be important to establish the primary life support of people, providing first to satisfy only the physiological needs of a person, primarily in food.

In addition, in separate emergency situations in the initial period of their occurrence, even the physiological needs of a person in energy cannot be satisfied. There are difficulties with housing, water, cooking, medical care, etc. Such difficulties may also occur under other circumstances when a person, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement, geographic location, turns out to be cut off from the outside world and should calculate only on itself. These are extreme conditions of human vital. For a person who is in extreme conditions, naturally desire to survive, i.e. Save yourself life.

The behavior of a person granted to itself in extreme conditions, the purpose of which is to preserve his life, and there is survival.

Extreme conditions in which a person is fighting for survival is characterized by: the absence or disadvantage of food (food); lack or disadvantage of drinking water; The impact on the human body of low or high temperatures.

Foodprovides the needs of the body in the energy and functioning of all organs and human systems.

Food should include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins.

Proteins make up the basis of each living cell, each tissue of the body. Therefore, the continuous admission of protein is absolutely necessary for the growth and restoration of tissues, as well as the formation of new cells. The most valuable proteins of meat, milk, eggs and vegetables, primarily potatoes and cabbage and some cereals - oatmeal, rice, buckwheat cereals.

Fats and carbohydrates are the main sources of energy and determine mostly calorie food. Animal fats are considered more complete than plant. The most useful fats contained in milk, cream, sour cream. Carbohydrates are especially rich in cereals, vegetables, fruits, a certain amount of carbohydrates is contained in milk.

Vitamins are necessary for the correct growth and development of the body, for normal operation of the gastrointestinal tract, neuromuscular apparatus, vision, etc. The most important vitamin C, vitamins of group B, vitamins A, D, E.

In addition, the composition must enter minerals (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus) required for the bone system, as well as cardiac and skeletal muscles. The need for them is covered completely if food consists of various products of animal and plant origin.

In the human body, the processes of oxidation (oxygen compounds) of physical nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), accompanied by the formation and separation of heat, occur in the human body. It is necessary for all life processes, it is spent on heating the air released, to maintain body temperature, thermal energy provides muscle system activity. The more muscle movements produce a person, the more he consumes oxygen, and, therefore, the more costs, they need more food to cover them.

The need for a certain amount of food is customary to express in thermal units - calories. The minimum amount of food that is necessary to maintain the human body in normal condition, It is determined by its needs at rest. This is the physiological needs of a person.

The World Health Organization found that the physiological needs of a person in energy make up about 1600 kcal per day. The real needs for energy is significantly higher, they depend on the intensity of labor exceed the specified rate of 1.4-2.5 times.

Fasting is the condition of the body with the complete absence or failure of food intake.

There are absolute, complete and incomplete fasting.

Absolute starvation is characterized by a complete lack of admission to the organism of foodstuffs - food and water.

Full starvation is starvation when a person is deprived of any food, but is not limited in water consumption.

Partial starvation occurs when, with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person is inconsistent with food some nutrients -vitamins, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and the like.

With full starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency, consuming the reserves of fatty fiber, muscle protein, etc. It is estimated that the middle-weight person has energy reserves of about 160 thousand kcal., 40-45% of which it can spend on internal self-sufficiency without a direct threat to its existence. This is 65-70 thousand kkal. Thus, consuming 1600 kcal per day, the person is able to live about 40 days, and taking into account the implementation of motor functions - about 30 days. Although there are cases when people did not take food at 40.50 and even 60 days and survived.

In the initial period of starvation, which usually lasts 2-4 days, arises strong feeling Hunger, a man constantly thinks about food. Appetite rises sharply, sometimes burning, pain in the pancreas, nausea. Possible dizziness, headaches, spasms in the stomach. When using water, salivation increases. In the first four days, human weight decreases on average one kilogram daily, and in areas with a hot climate - up to 1.5 kg. Then daily losses are reduced.

In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person is even experiencing some vigor. The tongue is often covered with a whitish touch, the smell of acetone can be felt in the mouth. Slyunodiment does not increase, even at the sight of food. Observed bad Son., prolonged headaches, raise irritability. The man falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness, weakens.

Hunger pushes a person's strength from the inside and reduces the body's resistance to external factors. A hungry man freezes several times faster than full. It takes more often and heavier tolerate the course of the disease. He is weakened by mental activity, the performance falls sharply.

Water. The lack of water leads to a decrease in body weight, a significant decline in forces, blood thickening and, as a result, heart surge, which exertes additional efforts to pushing the thickened blood from the vessels. At the same time in the blood, the concentration of salts increases, which serves as a formidable signal of the dehydration. Dehydration of the body by 15% and more can lead to irreversible consequences, to death. If devoid of food people can lose almost the entire supply of fabric, almost 50% of proteins and only after that get closer to a dangerous feature, then a loss of 15% fatal liquid. Fasting can last a few weeks, and a man deprived of water dies in a matter of days, and in hot climate conditions - and hours.

The need for the human body in water in favorable climatic conditions does not exceed 2.5-3 l per day.

It is important to distinguish true water hunger from apparent. Very often, the feeling of thirst arises not because of the objective lack of water, but due to incorrectly organized water consumption. Therefore, it is not recommended to drink a lot of water with a volley - it does not quit thirst, but can lead to swelling, weakness. Sometimes it is enough to rinse with cold water.

With an intensive sweating leading to the washing of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink slightly salted water - 0.5-1.0 g of salts per 1 liter of water.

Cold. According to statistical data from 10 to 15% of people who died in various extreme conditions, became victims of hypothermia.

The wind is crucial for the survival of a person in low temperatures plays. With the actual air temperature - 3 0 С and wind speed 10 m / s overall cooling caused by the joint effect of the actual air temperature and the wind, is equivalent to the temperature of the temperature -20 0 S. and the wind of 18 m / s turns the frost at 45 0 s in frost 90 0 C in the absence of wind.

In areas devoid of natural shelters (forest, relief folds), low temperatures in combination with strong wind can reduce human survival to several hours.

Long-term survival in minus temperatures also depends largely on the condition of clothing and shoes, the quality of the asylum, fuel and food, moral and human physical condition.

The clothes are capable of protecting a person from the cold in extreme conditions only for a short time, still sufficient to run asylum (even snow). The heat shield properties of clothing depend primarily from the type of fabric. It is best maintained by a warm-painted fabric - the more microscopic air bubbles are concluded between the fibers of the fabric than they are closer to each other, the less such a fabric misses heat from the inside, and outside the cold. A lot of air pores in woolen tissues - the total volume of pores in them reaches 92%; And in smooth, linen - about 50%.

By the way, the heat shield properties of fur clothing are explained by the same air pore effect. Each fur for fur is a small hollow cylinder with a "sealed" inside the air bubble. Hundreds of thousands of such elastic microcolotbral and make a fur coat.

Recently wide application Found clothes from synthetic materials and fillers of the type of synthesis, nitron, etc. Here, air capsules are enclosed in thin sheath From artificial fibers. Synthetic clothing is a little inferior to the fur heat, but it is very easy, it does not make it difficult for movements, it is almost not felt on the body. She is not blocked by the wind, it does not stick to her, she wounds little.

The most optimal option of clothing is multilayer clothes from different fabrics - it is best of all of 4-5 layers.

Shoes play a very important role in winter emergency situations, because 90% of all frostbies fall on the lower limbs.

All available methods should strive to keep shoes, socks, powders dry. For this, it is possible to make bugs from the boiled material, wind the legs with a piece of free fabric, etc.

Refuge. Clothing, how warm it was not, can protect a person from the cold only for hours, rare on days. No man's clothing from death will save, if it does not build warm shelter on time.

Mother tents, asylums from fragments of vehicles, wood, metal in the absence of stove will not be saved from the cold. After all, when exposing shelters from traditional materials, it is almost impossible to achieve hermetic sealing of seams and joints. Refuge "blurred" wind through. Warm air will fly through numerous cracks, so in the absence of stoves, primoses and other highly efficient heating devices, the air temperature inside asylum is almost always equal to the outer one.

Excellent refuge in winter can be erected from snow, and very quickly - in 1.5-2 hours. In a properly built snow shelter, the air temperature only due to the heat released by the person rises to minus 5-10 0 s at 30-40 degrees in the street. With the help of a candle, the temperature in the shelter can be raised from 0 to 4-5 0 s and above. Many polar researchers by installing inside a pair of primuses, heated air to +30 0 s!

The main advantage of snow shelters is the simplicity of construction - any person can build them, never holding a tool in their hands.

5.2. The main human factors contributing to survival

Will to live.With a short-term external threat, a person acts on the subconscious level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. In extreme conditions, with long-term survival, the instinct of self-preservation is gradually lost, sooner or later the critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental loads, the apparent meaninglessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is mastered by passivity, indifference, he is no longer frightened by the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossing. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore dies, without having exhausted until the end of the reserves, without using food reserves. 90% of people who found themselves after shipwrecks on rescue means die for three days from moral factors. Not once the rescuers were removed from boats or rapes found in the ocean, dead people in the presence of products and flasks with water.

Survival, based only on biological laws of self-recognition, briefly. For him, rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical reactions are characterized - a psychogenic striking factor operates. The desire to survive must be conscious and targeted. This will be in life when the desire to survive should dictate not to an instinct, but a conscious need. The will to life implies primarily actions. Burning is inaction. It is impossible to passively expect help from the side, it is necessary to take actions to protect yourself from adverse factors, assisting others.

General physical trainingquenching.The usefulness of advocacy training for a person who has in an extreme situation is not required to prove. In an extreme situation, I also need strength, endurance, and harness. These physical properties are impossible in extreme training conditions. For this, months are required. Rescuer servicemen acquire them during units, tactical and special training, as well as in individual classes with certain types of sports in free time.

Knowledge of self-space techniques. The basis of long-term survival is a strong knowledge in the most knowledge - recipes for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

The boxes of matches will not save a person from freezing, if he does not know how to make it possible to break in winter or in the rain. Incorrectly rendered first medical care only aggravates the state of the victim. Seductively possess comprehensive self-space knowledge in any climatic zone of the country, in any extreme situations. But it is associated with the learning of a large amount of information. Therefore, in practice, it is enough to restrict ourselves to the study of a particular climate zone and extreme situations possible in it. However, it is important to examine those sampling techniques that are suitable for any climatic zone, typical extreme situations: orientation on the ground, time definition, production of fire for primitive ways, the organization of the camp, the preservation of food, "mining" of water, first aid, overcoming water obstacles etc. We must remember the motto: "Know - it means to be able to be able to - it means to survive!".

Survival skills.Knowledge of survival techniques should be supported and survival skills. Survival skills are acquired by practice. Having, for example, weapons, but do not own the skills of hunting, you can die with hunger when abundant game. When mastering survival skills should not be "scattered", trying to immediately master all the amount of information on this or that the question of interest. It is better to be able to do less, it's better. It is not necessary to practically assimilate the construction of all types of shelters from snow (about 20 of them), it is enough to be able to build three or four shelters of various designs.

The right organization of rescue work. The survival of the group, which was in an extreme situation, largely depends on the organization of rescue work. It is unacceptable that each group participant makes only what he considers it necessary for himself at the moment. Collective survival allows you to preserve the life of each group member, individual - leads to the death of everyone.

Works inside the camp must distribute the team leader according to the forces and capabilities of each. Physically strong, first of all, men, entrust the most labor-intensive work - the harvesting of firewood, the construction of shelters, etc. Weakened, women and children to give work related to considerable time, but not requiring great physical efforts - maintaining a fire, drying and repair of clothing, food collection, etc. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of each work, regardless of its labor costs.

Any work should, as far as possible, is carried out in a calm pace with uniform spending forces. Sharp overloads followed by a long rest, the neurotic work lead to the rapid depletion of forces, to the irrational spending of body energy facilities.

With the right organization of work, the consumption of the strength of each member of the group will be approximately the same, which is extremely important when soldering, that is, equal to all, the diet.

5.3. Survival in natural environment

5.3.1. Basics and Tactics of Survival in Natural Environment

The basics of survival in the natural environment are strong knowledge in a wide variety of areas, starting with the foundations of astronomy and medicine, and ending with recipes for cooking from non-traditional "products", which may be at the site of survival - the bark of trees, plant roots, frogs, insects, etc. d. It is necessary to be able to navigate without a compass, feed the distress signals, be able to build a shelter from bad weather, rally the fire, ensure yourself with water, protect against wild animals and insects, etc.

Of great importance is the choice of survival tactics in the natural environment.

In the conditions of survival, three types of people behavior are possible, three survival tactics - passive survival, active survival, a combination of passive and active survival.

Passive survival tactics - This is the wait for the help of rescuers at the site of the accident or in close proximity to it, construction of structures for housing, landing equipment, food mining, etc.

Passive expectation tactics justifies themselves in cases of accidents, forced landing vehicles, the disappearance of which involves the organization of rescue operations to detect and save the victims. It is applied in situations when there is absolute confidence that the missing will be wanted and when it is known that the rescue units know the approximate area of \u200b\u200bthe location of the victims.

The tactics of passive survival are chosen and then when among the victims there is a non-transportable patient or a few seriously ill patients; When women, children and unprepared to active actions, poorly equipped people prevail in the group of victims; With particularly complex climatic conditions that exclude the possibility of active movement.

Tactics of active survival - It is an independent output of the victims of an accident or rescuers to the nearest settlement, to people. It can be applied in cases where hope is excluded for ambulance; When it is possible to establish your location and is confidence in achieving the nearest settlements. Active survival is used in cases where the need arises to urgently leave the original place due to heavy weather and other factors and to search for a terrain, convenient for passive survival. Active survival applies in the case of evacuation of victims from a disaster area.

In some cases, it is possible to combine, that is, which includes an active and passive form of survival tactics. In this case, the total efforts of the victims are organized a long-term camp (Bivak), after which the route group is created from among the most trained. The goal of the route group - as soon as possible to achieve the nearest settlement and with the help of local search and rescue services to organize the evacuation of the balance residues.

5.3.2. Orientation on the terrain. Sun orientation and stars

A. Definition of the side of the horizon during the day

If you do not have a compass, you can define an approximate direction to the north (and knowing where the north is all other side of the horizon). Below is a method with which you can at any time when the sun shines quite brightly, determine the side of the horizon on the shadow of the pole (Fig. 5.1).

Find a straight six meter long and do the following:

1. Stick the pole into the ground on a flat, free from the vegetation area, on which the shadow is clearly visible. The pole does not have to stand vertically. Its tilt to obtain the best shadow (in size and direction) does not affect the accuracy of this method.

2. Mark the end of the shade with a small peg, wand, stone, branch, own finger, deepening in the snow or in any other way. Wait until the end of the shade will not move for several centimeters. At the length of the pole in one meter it is necessary to wait 10-15 minutes.

3. Take the end of the shadow again.

4. Spend a straight line from the first mark to the second and extend it by about 30 cm per second mark.

5. Stand up so that the left leg sock was at the first mark, and the end leg toe is at the end of the line.

6. Now you are standing face to north. Determine other side of the horizon. To note directions on Earth (for the orientation of others), carry out a line intersecting the first in the form of a cross (+), and mark the side of the horizon. The basic rule when determining the side of the horizon. If you are not yet sure, put left foot or right to the first mark (seep.5), remember the main rule, the differentness of the West.

The sun always rises on the east side and enters Western (but rarely exactly in the east and exactly in the West). The shadow moves in the opposite direction. Therefore, anywhere in the globe, the first shadow mark will always be in the west direction, and the second is in East.

For approximate definition of the North, you can use the usual clock (Fig. 5.2).

In the northern moderate zone, the clock is installed so that the hour arrow pointed to the sun. The line from the north to the south lies between the clockwise and the number 12. This refers to standard time. If the hour arrow is transferred for an hour ahead, the line from the north to the south passes between the clockwise and the number 1. in summer timewhen the clock arrows are translated another hour ahead, instead of the figure 1 it is necessary to take into account the number 2. If you doubt, from which side there is north, remember that the sun in the northern hemisphere before noon is located in the eastern sky, and after noon - in Western . You can also use clocks to determine the side of the horizon in the southern moderate zone, but somewhat different than in the northern zone. Here, the number 12 should be sent to the sun, and then the S-y line will pass in the middle between the number 12 and the clockwise arrow. When transferring a clockwise hour for an hour ahead, the C-Yu lies between the hour arrow and the number 1 or 2. In both hemispheres, moderate zones are between 23 and 66 ° of northern or southern latitude. In cloudy weather to the center of the clock, then depitted a wand and keep it so that the shade falls from her along the clockwise. In the middle between the shadow and the number 12 will be directed to the north.

^

Fig. 5.1. Determination of the direction to the north on the shadow of the pole.

Fig. 5.2. Determination of the direction to the north with the help of hours.

You can focus on the constellation of Cassiopeia. This is the constellation of five bright stars It has the form of a tilted letter M (or W, when it is low). The polar star is right in the center, almost on a straight line from the central star of this constellation, about the same distance from it. As with a big bear. Cassiopeia is also slowly rotating around the polar star and is always located almost opposite the big bear. This situation of this constellation provides great help to orientation when a large bear is located low and may not be visible due to vegetation or high local items.

In the southern hemisphere to determine the direction south and from here all other destinations can be the Southern Cross constellation. This group of four bright stars has the shape of a cross, tilt in one direction. Two stars forming a long axis or cross the cross are called "pointers". From the base of the cross mentally, extend the distance five times the length of the Cross itself and find an imaginary point; it will serve as a south direction (Fig. 5.4.). From this point Look straight to the horizon and choose any landmark.

Plants can help in identifying the parties of light. The bark of trees, individual stones, rocks, walls of old wooden buildings Usually on the northern side are thick covered with moss and lichen (Fig.5.5). The bark of trees from the north side is rougher and darker than with South. In crude weather on the trees (this is especially noticeable at pine) forms a wet dark strip. On the north side of the trunk, it remains longer and rises above. Bereza from the south side of the trunk is usually lighter and more elastic. The secondary pine (brown, cracked) the bark on the north side climbs above the trunk.

In the spring of herbal cover is more developed and densely on the northern outskirts of the pollas heated by the Sun, on the hot season, on the contrary - on the southern, shaded. The anthill has a more common side to be addressed to the south.

In the spring on the southern slopes, the snow as it were "is decent", forming the protrusions (spikes) directed to the south (spikes) separated by depressions. The border of the forest in the southern slopes rises higher than in the northern.

Fig. 5.5. Determination of the direction to the north of the anthill, annual rings and MKU on the stones.

The most accurate astronomical techniques for determining the parties of the world. Therefore, they should be used primarily. All other use only, as a last resort, - in conditions of poor visibility, rainy weather.

5.3.3. Determining the time

The method of determining the direction to the north by shade (Fig. 5.6) can be used to determine the approximate time of the day. This is done as follows:

1. Move the pole to the point of crossing the lines of East -Zapad and North-South and install it on the ground vertically. In any place of the globe, the western part of the line corresponds to 6.00 hours, and the eastern part -18.00.

2. Now the S-Yu line becomes a midday line. Shadow from the pole is as if a clockwise arrow on the sunny clock and with it you can determine the time. Depending on your location and season, the shadow can move or clockwise, or against it, but it does not interfere with the definition of time.

3. Solar clock is not a clock in the usual understanding. The duration of the "hour" during the year is not the same, but it is usually assumed that 6.00 always corresponds to the sunrise, and 18.00 - an approach. However, the sundial hours are quite suitable to determine the time in the absence of real hours or in order to correctly put the clock.

The time definition of the day is very important for the appointment of a meeting, holding a planned agreed action by individuals or groups, determining the remaining duration of the day before the occurrence of darkness, etc. 12.00 on a sunny hour will always really match the noon, however, other readings of a clockwise arrow compared to the usual time are somewhat different depending on the location and date.

4. The method of determining the side of the horizon by the hour can give erroneous readings, especially in low latitudes, which can lead to "grinding". To avoid it, put your clock through the Sun, and then determine the horizon side on them. With this method, 10- The minute waiting needed to determine the side of the horizon on the movement of the shadows, and you can receive such a number of indicators during this time, what is necessary in order to avoid "circles".

Fig. 5.6. Determining the day of day by shadow.

Determination of the side of the horizon in such a modified method will correspond to the definition of the direction to the north on the shade of the pole. The degree of accuracy of both ways is the same.