Means of expressions of grammatical values \u200b\u200bin different languages. Synthetic methods of expressing grammatical values

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Russian State University. I. Kanta

Faculty of Linguistics and Intercultural Communication

Department of Language Theory and Intercultural Communication

Methods for expressing grammatical values

Work completed:

student Flimk, 1st Course, Groups 2AP

A. A. Slobodski

Kaliningrad

Introduction ............................................................ .3.

Chapter 1 ............................................................... ..4

Chapter 2 ............................................................... ..5

Chapter 3 ............................................................... ..9

Chapter 4 .................................................................1.1

Conclusion ...................................................... ... 13

List of references .....................................................14

Appendix 1 ......................................................... ... 15

Introduction

Grammar [ Attachment 1 ] Determines the type of language, being the most stable part. If phonetics and vocabulary occupy the peripheral position in the structure of the language, then the grammar occupies the central position. But at the same time it is always mediated, since its relationship with reality is carried out only through vocabulary. Also, the grammar science is unthinkable and without phonetics, as what is not pronounced phonetically absent and in grammar.

Thus, it can be said that each grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: internal - grammatical importance, and an external - grammatical method of expression.

As science, grammar includes two parts - morphology [ Attachment 1 ] and syntax. The object of study in morphology is individual words and their grammatical properties.

Each significant word in turn possesses two values \u200b\u200b- lexical and grammatical. If only one lexical significance can be, then the grammatical values \u200b\u200bof the word may be somewhat, and they are in the language of their morphological and syntactic expression.

In the field of morphology, grammatical meaning is the common meaning of words, as parts of speech (for example, the value of the substation in nouns), as well as private values \u200b\u200bof the word forms and words in general, opposed to each other in the framework of grammar categories [ Attachment 1 ] (For example, the value of a time or other time, face, numbers or kind).

ABOUT various methods The expression of grammatical values \u200b\u200bin the language and will be discussed in this work.

The concept of grammatical meaning .

The grammatical meaning is a generalized abstract linguistic value inherent in a number of words or wordforms, syntactic structures and its regular expression in the language.

As already mentioned, each significant word has a lexical and grammatical meaning. The bearer of the lexical value is the basis of the word. Grammatical acts as an additional lexical and expresses relationships. For example, the attitude to other words in the phrase or proposal, the attitude towards the acting person or the relation of the report of the fact to reality and time. .

The grammatical significance is not determined by the lexical meaning of the word and, unlike a lexical, characteristic of one or another word, is not focused on one word. It is typical for many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have several grammatical values, changing its grammatical form, but maintaining the value of lexical. For example, a word table has a number of forms - table. , table , tables - which express the grammatical values \u200b\u200bof the number and case.

The grammatical meaning of a certain word in one form or another is expressed by a certain grammatical way. [ Attachment 1 ]. These methods used in languages, there is a limited amount - affixation, internal flexion, reduction, supplism, stress and intonation, word order, service words. The grammar of any language can only be expressed by these ways. Some languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Russian, English) use all the listed methods, others (for example, French, Chinese) - only some. In addition, it should be noted that in different languages These methods are combined with various grammatical values, which creates a new form every time.

Grammatical ways of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bare easily calculated and foreseeable. Three main methods of expression are distinguished: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

Synthetic methods for expressing values

The synthetic method lies in the expression of the value in the Word and includes affixation, alternations and internal flexions, reduction, supplism, addition, and stress method.

Method of affixation

The method of affixation is to join the roots or basics of words of various affixes [ Attachment 1 ] serving to express grammatical values.

For instance: house House and - House w. , make - from do, write - n. Crank, be late - OPDA yva t.

Affixes can be divided into prefixes facing the root and post fixes standing after the root. There are languages \u200b\u200bthat do not consume prefixes (for example, Turkic), but expressing grammar only postfixes and on the contrary - languages \u200b\u200bthat do not recognize postfixes (for example, Sugili language). The Indo-European language group, in particular Russian, consume both prefixes and post-fixes, which in turn are divided into suffixes and flexions. Sufifixes are postfixes with a derivation value, and flexions are post-fixes with a relational value.

There are also other type affixes, although suffixes and prefixes are found in the world's languages \u200b\u200bmost often:

1) Interfixes - Service Morphemes [ Attachment 1 ], serve to communicate roots in difficult words. For example, connecting vowels in Russian: star- about - Pad, snow about - .

2) Confixes - combinations of two affixes - prefix and postfix - which act together. For example, German verbs: loben. - "Praise" and gE. - lOB - t. - "Praised", where -Ge - t. They surround the root, drawing up the word together.

3) Infixes - Affixes inserted inside the root or base. For example, Latin language: ru - m. - p. - o. - "I break" when r. ū p. -ī - "I've broken". "Plug-in" nasal consonant type [M].

4) Transfixes - Affixes tearing the root consisting of some consonants. This phenomenon is characterized by Semitic languages. For example, ancient European GNōB - "steal", Gānab - "stolen" where the root GNB Means the idea of \u200b\u200b"theft", and vowels of transfix mean Wordformes: Infinitives and the form of the past time.

Also a big role in many languages \u200b\u200bplays zero affax - The lack of affixes in one form of the paradigm in the presence of affixes in other forms. For example, for the word horn Zero affax is an indicator of a nominative case, single numbersince in all other cases of the only and multiple number There are affixes - róg-A, Róg-y, Rog-Á, Rog-ó.

Method of alternation and internal flex

Grammar values \u200b\u200bcan be expressed by the change in the sound of the root itself. Sound alternations - a mutual replacement in the same places and in the same morphemes - may be:

1) Phonetic. The change in the sound is due to the position, and alternate the options for one phoneme. For example, alternations of shock and unstressed vowels in Russian: water [Current] - water [Vadá], or bell and deaf consonants: friend [Druk] - friend [Dr.].

2) Non-refinery. Sound changes do not depend on the position, different phonemes alternate. For example, [friend -] - [friends' -] - [friendly] in words friend - Friends - friendly .

Among the non-refinery alternations in turn distinguish:

a) Morphological. The alternation is not caused by a phonetic position, but also does not express grammatical significance, but only accompanies the formation of grammatical forms. For instance, forehead - forehead, stump - stump - The phenomenon of "fluent vowel". Alternation [k - h], [g - w], [x -sh] - pE to U - Pe. c. Eat, Be. g. Y - B. j. IS, SU. h. Oh - Su. sh e. Alternation of combinations of consonants with one consonant: [SK - SH], [ST - YE], [ZG - F], [Zd - F] - bad sC. Axity is bad sh Hell, pro art oh - simply sh , Zapoi here AT - P. zZH e.

b) Grammatical. The alternation does not depend on the phonetic position, and independent phonemes alternate with each other, with zero or one phoneme - with two. .That's what it is internal flexia .

Ablaut - most ancient view Internal flexis, characterized by changing the vowel in the root when the main forms of verb are formed. For example, English verb:

In this case, the alternation of the vowel is clearly visible.

Will be silent The type of inner flexion formed in the medieval period in different languages Alone. It is characterized by changing the vowels in the root when the form of a plural number is formed. For example, in English:

F. oo. T. – f. eE T.

"leg legs"

Redupplication

Redupplication (Repeat) It is in full or partial repetition of the root, the basics or a whole word without changing the sound composition or with its partial change.

The grammatical method is a combination of grammatical forms with homogeneous means of expressing grammatical values. Abstract grammatical ways without taking into account grammatical forms and values \u200b\u200bdoes not happen. Methods for expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bare divided into two large groups: synthetic and analytical.

In the synthetic method, the lexical and grammatical meaning of the word is expressed by its form. Synthetic methods for expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200binclude affixation, agglutination, flexivity and morpheme operations. With an analytical method of expressing grammatical values, lexical and grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed separately. The analytical methods of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200binclude official words and order of words. Accordingly, in accordance with the predominance of synthetic or analytical methods for expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bin the languages, the languages \u200b\u200bare conventionally divided into synthetic and analytical ones.

Synthetic methods.

• 1. Affixation is the most common way. With it, grammatical forms are formed using affixes, financially pronounced, or zero, attached to a forming basis: for example, a house - at home, do - to do - did;
• 2. Agglutination. With this method of expressing grammatical values, each grammatical value is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has its own function. The forming basis remains usually unchanged. For example: in the Kazakh language, the suffix-lard indicates a plural, and suffix -g - duty. Then, if the child, in Kazakh, - Bala, then children - Balalar, and children - Balalarga, Esala Girl - Kyz, then girls - Kyzlar, and Girls - Kyzlarga. This method is used in the languages \u200b\u200bof agglutinative type (Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Japanese, etc.);
• 3. Flexivity. With flexivity, the word is carried out through affixes or flexions. The same flexion is capable of transmitting several grammatical values. Here we also face the phenomenon of fusion - the interpenetration between the formative base and affixes. This can be considered tautology, but flexity is characteristic of flexive type languages \u200b\u200bto which most Indo-European. For example: to fly - I am flying, man - Muzhitsky (man and SC and I get Muzitsky);
• 4. Morphemes - operations. With this method of expressing grammatical values, grammatical values \u200b\u200bare transmitted by saving morphemes:
  • A) emphasis. In this case, grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed by shifting the stress. For example, the clock is a mound dress, discharge-cut-cut. This method may some cases Even in languages \u200b\u200bwith fixed stress.
  • B) alternations (internal flexion). With internal flexions, grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed by alternating the root morpheme. The most striking example:
    • - English Sing - Sang - Sung - Song;
    • - Foot - Feet;
    • - MAN - MEN.

In russian language:

• - friend [to] - friend [g] - Friends - friendly;
• - naked [l] - gol [l,];
• - Looking - I look.

French:

• - DOUX - DOUCE;
• - Oeil - Yeux.
• C) Reducing (repeats). When implementing this type of morpheme - operations, grammatical importance is expressed by the full or partial construction of the root, the basics or a whole word. For example: Russian. I barely barely, great, I thought it was thinking expressing an increase in the intensity of action or a sign. Latin. Mordeo (I bite) - Momordi (I bit). In a number of languages, the Reduces is a regulatory way to form a plural: Chinese Zhen (person) - Zhen Zhen (people), Armenian Gund (Regiment) - Gund - Gund (many regiments). Reducing as a grammatical phenomenon is widespread in the Polynesian and other Austronesian languages: Beii - Beii, Bil - Bill, take - take, Lava - Lava.
• D) Supploitism. When this grammatical method is implemented, grammatical ways are formed by a complete change in the base. For example, in Russian: Good - Better, bad - worse, I am me, etc. In many Indo-European languages, the phenomenon of Suppleivism is observed in the verbs with the meaning "to be" and "go."

When implementing an analytical method for the formation of grammatical values, lexical and grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed separately. Analytical method includes a method of servicewords and a way of word order.

With the method of service words, the grammatical value is transmitted to the grammatical value is transmitted using a combination of a significant and service word. For example, I will read - the value of the future time would read - the value of the conditional ignition, is more beautiful - the value of the degree of comparison.

As service words are:

• A) Articles: English. A / The Apple (ORD / Neopre.)
• B) Prepositions: I went to my sister, I look at you, a sign with her - clarify the case.
• C) settlements. They are functionally identical to pretexts, but they stand after a significant word, to which they relate. For example, Azerba. Yer Balalaruchun ( kindergarten) - literally - "place for children." "Accuner" - postal with the meaning "for".
• D) particles: I would like, where "would be" - a particle expressing the category of the conditional approach of the verb.
• E) Auxiliary verbs are full-known words exposed de semantics: I will read.

The method of word order as a method of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bis the most productive in languages \u200b\u200bwith a fixed word order, such as, for example, French and English. But, this method You can meet in Russian: Compare twenty people (for sure) and twenty (approximately).

The hybrid or mixed way to express grammatical values \u200b\u200ballows you to use the analytical and synthetic methods of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bin the complex. For example, in Russian importance proposed case (if it does not specify it) is expressed and synthetically - a pellery flexion, and analytically - the pretext: on Earth.

The grammatical field is a combination of grammatical units, combined with the generality of content and / or formal indicators and reflecting the conceptual, subject or functional similarity of the indicated phenomena.

Grammar fields, for example:

• - a pledge field, presented in the language of both grammatical (morphicized) units and units on the verge of paradigmatic and syntagmatics (free and semi-free phrases);
• - syntagmatic fields - phrases and other syntactic units as manifestation of semantic compatibility of their components, for example, "go" - "legs", "bark" - "Dog";
• - the set of structural models of proposals united by the generality of semantic tasks;
• - For example, in the syntax field of imperative, all models are included in which the orders are expressed.

The term "field" is often used not differentiated along with the terms "group" (lexico-semantic group, thematic group), "paradigm" (lexico-semantic, syntax paradigm), etc.

Formal and functional grammar.

Grammar NA.

Grammar directly components arose as part of descriptive linguistics. The HC grammar is a formal method in which the proposal is considered as a set of non-intersecting elements.

The principle of separation of the proposal on the principle of the NA is extremely simple. Two nearby elements are combined into the structure if it is associated with syntactically. Sounds in words somewhat foggy, but let's look at the example.

Example, in Russian:

In fact, the proposal is considered as a linear chain of elements combined into blocks according to a certain rules.

Similar type syntactic analysis It works well in cases with the direct order of words, but if the order of words is free - free, as, for example, in Russian, then there are difficulties in such a collection, sometimes insurmountable, since the analysis becomes either meaningless or the "intersection" of the branches occurs What contradicts the rules of the National Assembly. In addition, according to the rules of grammar NA, simple design It is obliged to form from two elements located directly nearby. In fact, in fact, difficulties can occur even with the analysis of proposals in English.

In addition, such a grammar, in the separation of semantics vulnerable both from the point of explanatory adequacy, and in terms of generation, i.e. in fact - predictive strength. That is, if you estimate the model of the NA according to the three criteria for estimating models: explanatory adequacy, descriptive efficacy and predictive force, then the NA model is not attractive. The disadvantages of HC grammar in the United States have tried to overcome with the help of a transformation (generating, generative) grammar.

Generative linguistics is one of the branches of the formal direction in linguistics, which arose under the influence of the ideas of N. Khomsky in the 50s-60s. 20 V. and based on the description of the language in the form of formal models of a certain type. The source and basic for generative linguistics type of formal models are transformational generating grammar, sometimes abbreviated with transformational grammar or generating grammar. This theory arose in the United States as a reaction to American descriptism (see descriptive linguistics) and the method (apparatus) of the syntactic analysis of the proposal of directly components, but in its value, it was beyond the limits of the National Linguistic School. The generative linguisticism has advanced several fundamental oppositions: "competence" is clearly distinguished - knowledge of language and "use" - the use of a language in speech activity. Transformational generating grammar describes first of all the competence of the speaker.

The structure of this grammar has three main components: syntactic, semantic and phonological, of which the main, central, is syntax, and semantics and phology are performed with respect to the syntax of interpretive functions. Two levels of the syntax representation are introduced into the transformational generating grammar:

• - deep (deep structure) and superficial (surface structure);
• - The task of the syntactic description is the calculation of all deep and surface structures, as well as the establishment of strict compliance between them.

Syntax contains basic and transformational subcomponents. The base is the system of elementary rules, presumably close to various languages, calculates a limited set of deep structures, prototypes of future proposals. The first rule of the base:

• S \u003d NP + VP
• - Separates the source symbol of the sentence S to the sequence of components: NP is a nominal group (which is a group of subjects) and a VP - a verb group.

On the right side of the rules are possible both non-metrminal and terminal (final, continuing) symbols.

The terminal includes, in particular, speech parts symbols: S - Sentence (Offer), NP - Noun Phrase (Personal Group), VP - Verb Phrase (verb group), T - The (Artikl), ATTR (A) - Attribute ( Definition), N - Noun (name), V - VERB (verb), AUX - Auxiliary (auxiliary verb), participle (sacrament), ADV - Adverb (adverb), represented in the form of a so-called laid wood component or in The form of the marked storage record. Thus, for the generation of the proposal, the Khomsky created a generating grammar "The base rules will be constructed approximately a trace, structural characteristic: according to this decomposition, the NP nominal group consists of a noun" Homsky ", the verbal VP consists of auxiliary part (AUX) containing grammar. The time category, and the main verb (MV - Main Verb).

The main verb consists of a verb (V) and the directing group of direct addition. This name group, in the surface structure, presented as an attribute combination of "generating grammar", in the original structural characteristic Contains the "Grammar" nominal group and inserted (Embedded) the relative supply S2 "which (\u003d grammar) generates", the decomposition of which is similar to the decomposition of the matrix (Matrix), i.e. the main offer S1. Such a structure is interpreted by the semantic component (all terminal symbols according to combined stored in the vocabulary articles of the lexicon generating grammar).

Thus, the structure of the NA has already dealt with us earlier suggestions will have the following form:

The transformational subcomponent generates surface structures of proposals from structures resulting from the basic rules. If the deep structure consists of a system inserted into each other, the transformation rules are used cyclically, starting with the most deeply inserted proposals (such, no appendage on which no appendages are no longer dependent) and ending with the main proposal.

From a formal point of view, thanks to transformations, four types of symbol operations can be performed: add, omit (erasing), rearrangement and change of characters. Content transformations reveal regular compliances between synonymous suggestions of the type:

• - (1a) "Homsky created the theory of generating grammar";
• - (1b) "Homsky created the theory of generating grammar";
• - (2a) "It turned out that the theory of generating grammar is incorrect";
• - (2b) "The theory of generators of the gramman turned out to be incorrect", etc., as well as between structures close in structure and in meaning;
• - (3) "The theory of generating grammatics explains the language";
• - (4a) "The theory of generating grammatics seeks to explain the language";
• - (4b) "The theory of generating grammatics does not seek to explain the language";
• - (4B) "Does the theory of generating grammar tend to explain the language?"
• - (4g) "The desire of the theory of generating grammatics to explain the language";
• - (4d) "The theory of generating grammar, seeking to explain the language", etc. It is known about two dozen Osn. transformations (processes), as a result of which the main types of syntactic structures of various languages \u200b\u200bare obtained.

For instance:

• - Negative transformation creates a negative supply of type 4B;
• - questioning transformation creates 4B type sentences;
• - transformation of passivity builds suggestions of type 1B from the same deep structure as 1a;
• - Transformation nominally converts the proposal, for example. 4a, in the nominal group of type 4g;
• - Transformation converts a suggestion of type 4a in relates, a suggestion of type 4D;
• - transformation of the omission of nominal groups when inserting a suggestion of type 3 to the structure underlying the suggestion of type 4a, lowers the supply subject to the inserted;
• - the transformation of the lifting of the structures underlying the suggestion of type 2a builds suggestions of type 2B by lifting the subject to the inserted supply to the composition of the matrix;
• - transformation replaces (as part of one sentence) nominal groups on return pronoun (For example, "Mom bought herself gloves"), etc.

After the transformation subcomponent, the phonological component "works", providing phonetic interpretation of the proposal. At the output of the phological component, the proposal is converted into a chain of phonetic symbols (abbreviated representing the matrix of phonetic signs). Formally B. general The rules of transformational generating grammar have the form:

A \u003d\u003e z / x - y

T. E. Are the rules of substitution, indicating that the symbol A is converted into the z chain, when it is surrounded by x on the left and y on the right. General device This grammar can be represented as a scheme.

The generative linguistics was widely developed both in the United States and beyond the 60s. 20 V. It raised the requirement of a linguistic description specified in the form of calculation. Attracted attention to unobservable syntax objects, the existence of which is determined indirectly. Contributed to the development of the syntax description apparatus, comparable in detail with the device for the description of morphology; Introduced into linguistics the formalization technique of a description that facilitates, in particular, the automation of language processes using a computer. However, immediately after the output of the "aspects of the syntax theory" of Homsky (1965), reflecting the stage of the so-called standard theory, opposition flows, for example, generating semantics, pelvic grammar appeared as part of the generative linguistics. In the 70s. The influence of the ideas of the generative linguistics is significantly weakened, many of its weaknesses are revealed, for example, a priority in the allocation of source syntactic units and the rules of the base component. Not a focus on modeling speech activities and, in particular, underestimating the role of the semantic component and pragmatic factors. Weak applicability to the description of multiple languages. In the 80s. The ideas of the generative linguistics continue to develop the Khomsky and his students (the so-called "expanded standard theory"," Revised expanded standard theory ", etc.). These theories also did not overcome the shortcomings of the generative linguistics. However, the terminological apparatus of transformational generating grammar entered the linguistic use and is used by many lingules working outside the framework of the generative linguistics (for example, the deep structure, surface structure, transformation and some other).

Dependency structure:

At the linearly ordered chain of the word-definition proposition, the binary relationship is set, reflecting the fact that two words in the proposal that form the phrase, usually "non-equivance" and in grammatical, and in the semantic plan. This relationship relationship can be considered as a generalization of traditionally allocated in the proposal of management relations, coordination and adjustment. A set of such dependencies between word-definitions gives significant information about the syntactic structure of this proposal. Empirical observations show that in most cases this set of dependencies on a set of occurrences of the word forms of the supply of P may be represented as a column, which is a tree.

The dependency tree of the sentence of the proposition n is called the final graph on the set of occurrences of the word forms (nodes) of the sentence p such that:

there is a single word, not dependent on any other (this word form is called the root of the deres, or, by linguistic terminology, its vertex);

any word form, different from standing in the top, depends exactly from one other word form;

in the column there are no closed paths.

The path in the dependency tree forms a sequence of the word forms in which each next word depends on the previous one. For each tree node, there is a single path from the top of the tree. A closed path is called such a path in which its beginning and the end coincide. If from the word of x in the proposal P leads the path to the word form, they say that the word form x indirectly subordinates the word formal (or: the word form in indirectly depends on the word form. They also use the term "l: leads a word form."

The set of all the word forms, indirectly dependent on the word for form, is called a group of dependence of this word form. Note that the direct dependence of the word formation is a special case of indirect dependence.

The relationship ratio between wordforms is denoted by an arc x-y.

The dependency group of the pretext for the word is included to represent the syntactic structure of the sentence. In a group of dependence of the wood vertex, an entire offer is used.

As well as the structures of the components, the trees of dependencies have sufficient "distinguishable power" to resolve the structural homonymy of proposals.

The structure of dependences (1) corresponds to the meaning of the sentence: it took out the handset made of clay, structure (2): he took out the tube lying in clay.

When analyzing the proposals of the natural language, the so-called dependency trees are often used. In the laid dependency tree, each arc (dependence of the dependence) is assigned to a certain type of grammatical relationship between word formations in the proposal. For example, the relationship between the subject and predicative is predicative (pre.), Between nouns and adjectives agreed with it - the definition (definition), between nouns and inconsistent definition - Attribute (attribute), between the verb and the circumstance associated with it is a circumstance (vow.) and others. A set of types of grammatical relations depends on the specific grammar of the language. In his work I.A. Melchuk (1964) considers 31 types of dependencies in Russian.

The declared dependency tree for the above sentence will be like this:

The stated dependency structures make it possible to distinguish between the homonymy of proposals or structures in their composition in the case when it is not possible to attribute two different unblocked dependency woods.

There is another graphic representation of the dependency structure in the form of a so-called dependency tree (Sevb, 1981). This method of the image of the proposal structure is that the two-dimensional coordinate system is selected, according to one of the axes of which (abscissa axis) there are word formers in a linear order in the proposal, and on another axis (ordinate axis) there are nodes of dependencies in accordance with the level, This node in the tree.

At the same time, the ordinate axis is usually directed from top to bottom, so the top (root) of the dependency tree of linguistic terminology remains a vertex of wood (the tree "grows" from top to bottom).

1 - 2 - 3 - 4.

The proposal structure for the presentation of the syntactic structure:

4 - 5 - 6 - 7.

Offers use wood dependencies in the form of an aligned dependency tree in two-dimensional system Coordinates (CP. One-dimensional image of the "shooter" structure of this sentence, the above) will look like:

Since the hierarchy of the dependency structure of the dependences is determined by the ordinate axis, the arrow as an image of the dependences of the dependences can be not used.

Projective dependency structures:

The formal presentation of the proposal structure in the form of a dependency tree allows strictly to formulate one of the significant syntactic patterns of natural languages. We are talking about the so-called property of the project structures of the dependences of the proposals of natural languages.

The concept of a group of dependence of the word formation group was determined above in the proposal of P. Recall that the word-dependent dependence group includes all the words of the proposal of P, depending directly or indirectly from x.

The projective structure of the dependency of the proposal n is called such a structure in which a group of dependence of each word form is the inseparable segment in the linear order of the sentence words.

This property of the proposal structure is also known as the "compactness" property, when syntactically related words of proposals (phrases) are connected in it, form an indisputable segment of supply. In the following dependency tree, violation of the project properties is formally expressed in the fact that the line of projections leading from the word forms, linearly located along the abscissa axis, cross the arcs of the dependency tree, reflecting the structural relationships between the word formations in the proposal, or the arc arcs of the dependencies are intersecting between themselves. With a one-dimensional (linear) dependence on the dependency tree, when both the linear order of words in the proposal and the structural relationship between the wordforms are taken into account, and the formal sign of the violation of the draft law is the intersection of the arrows (arcs) of dependencies between wordforms.

A special case of the project violation is the "covering" arrow of the vertex sentence.

At the same time, there is no intersection of the arc of the dependency tree, but the main sign of the project is violated: "discontinuous" groups of the dependence of individual word forms appear in the proposal (i.e. groups that are not segments in linear order words).

The property of the draft structure of the dependences is a statistically confirmed by the strong pattern of the natural language, and it is usually violated in two cases:

a) in sentences with an obvious violation of the normalized order of words ("in grammatically incorrect sentences"):

b) in proposals when the project is violated in order to achieve a certain artistic (stylistic) effect:

The project as a regularity of the syntax of a natural language that regulates linear order relations and structural links between wordware in a sentence, it is sometimes so strong that the native speakers prefer a projective syntactic structure not projective to the detrimental sense interpretation of the proposal.

1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5.

The proposed proposal, he from Germany was mistaken:

Combustion fruits are usually interpreted as a projective:

But the structure corresponding to the correct understanding of this proposal will be different, besides, it will not be projective:

Coordination of the structures of components and dependencies:

The structures of constituents and dependencies in principle reflect significantly different information on the structure of the proposal.

The main differences of these two presentations of the syntactic structure of the sentence are as follows.

Elementary units in the dependency tree are the entry of word forms, elementary syntactic units The structure of the components are phrases (including as a particular case, individual Wordforms and the full offer).

The structure of dependencies is based on the "non-equivance" ratio between two words x and y, when one of them depends on the other. In the structure of the components of the relationship between directly components of a certain component and without a hierarchy, that is, no one directly component is allocated as the main (main), on which other directly components depend on. This is quite logical for phrases in which the allocation of the main elements is not required - an example of such phrases is homogeneous groups - nominal or verbal:

But at the same time, many syntactic relations between elementary units Offers require the allocation of the main and subordinate unit:

2) The structure of the components allows for the possibility of combining into one component "semantically close" phrases, when the structure of the dependences cannot distinguish such semantic shades. An example here is an analysis of the phrase ancient wall of the city, for. Which is possible only one structure of dependencies:

But the two possible structures of the components:

The question of how much to distinguish such semantic shades when analyzing the proposal, we will not discuss here.

However, the ability to determine a significant connection between the two models of representing the syntactic structure of the sentence - in the form of the structure of the components and in the form of the structure of the dependences - is available. To do this, be introduced into the structure of the components additional information On the orientation of the syntactic bonds, namely, in each component, and allocate among it directly components of one as the main component directly, considering the remaining components in the composition of the monkey.

This procedure for attributing information for and on the main directly component can be performed formally, but for a specific grammar of the language you can use some meaningful criteria. The system of components in which for each component among its directly components is allocated one as the main thing called the oriented structure of the components.

The graphic image of the oriented structure of the components may be such - the arrows mark the unmarked components. The transition from the oriented structure of the components to the structure of dependencies is obvious.

The structure of the components of the proposals P and the structure of the dependences of this proposal is called coordinated if:

the dependences of the dependence of all the components of the dependence structure are the components of the proposition structure of P;

each component of the structure of the proposition P is a group of dependence or a truncated group of dependence of some node structure of the dependence of the supply of P.

Under the truncated group of dependence of the node in the dependences of the dependence of the proposition, the arbitrary part of the complete group of the dependence of this node, for example, returned yesterday, returned home late in the evening, etc. When the truncated groups in the structure of the components of the proposal p must be followed by the rule (3) in the system definition The components, namely: truncated groups as components should not partially intersect (only the inclusion of one truncated group to another or non-crossing them).

The term "grammar" (from Dr. Greek. grammatike.
techne-letters "Written Art" - from gramma. "Letter") is ambiguous: it means both science - a section of the linguistic, and the object of this science - an objectively existing grammatical system in each language. The latter is understood either in a broad sense, as a set of laws of the functioning of the units of the language at all levels of its structure, or (more often) in a narrower sense - as a totality of the rules of construction: 1) of lexical units, first of all, words (and their forms) from the morphem, and 2) connected statements and their parts - from the lexical units selected in the process of speech every time respectively expressed thoughts. The first rules are engaged in morphology, the second is syntax.

All these rules for constructing are directly or indirectly correlated with some features of the transmitted content. Grammatical rules come in general System The correspondences between the content plan and the language expression plan, i.e., between the value (meaning) and the peculiarities of the appearance of the formed language units. Therefore, the rules of construction are simultaneously the rules of understanding expressed meanings, the rules for the transition from the address perceived by the address of the expression plan to the content plan encoded in it.

Those elements of the content that are behind the grammatical rules call grammatical values. Grammar values \u200b\u200bare presented, of course, not only in certain words and their forms, but even more - in meaningful combinations of significant words and in general offers. If in the word grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed by the peculiarities of building the word, its separate parts (for example, endings), alternations, emphasis, etc., in the phrase and proposal to these grammatics, others are joined by the order of words, intonation, service words serving all the proposal or phrase, etc. Grammatical means ( or methods) applied in languages \u200b\u200bare formal indicators corresponding grammatical values.

The originality of grammatical values \u200b\u200bis that they, in contrast to lexical values, are not called in our speech directly, but are expressed in passing, as if in passing. They accompany the lexical values \u200b\u200bthat are only called directly (referred to) in the statement. It is not difficult, however, make sure that in creating a holistic value of the statement, as well as the values \u200b\u200bof all its meaningful parts, grammatical values \u200b\u200bplay a very significant role, not less than the lexical values \u200b\u200bused in the statement of words. Cf., for example, combinations gift wife and gift wife (the words are the same, but one ending is changed and a completely different meaning is obtained); or get off stick! and get a stick!; or - with a more subtle difference - drank water and drank water; Two hundred people and man two hundred (in the last example of the word form form, but the change in the order of their location creates the added value of the approximate value); Wed, finally, the same word forward used as a single sentence with imperative intonation (Forward!) and with question intonation (Forward?). It is grammatical values \u200b\u200bto organize a statement, make it an adequate expression of thought.

In order to better understand what is a grammatical value and what its role is in language, consider the short, consisting of only two words, russian sentence Petrov is a student. Words included in this proposal express two lexical meanings: 1) Name own Petrov expresses an idea of \u200b\u200ba particular face that is the surname, 2) nominal noun student The concept of the class of persons students in universities is expressed. But the value of the sentence Petrov - student It does not boil down to the simple amount of these two values. The meaning of this proposal is a deliberate (special, standing in the spotlight) the report of the fact that Petrov's personality is a member of the class (set) "Students". We can allocate the following grammatical values \u200b\u200bhere:

1) the importance of the approval of some fact (cf. question about the fact at another, questioning, intonation: Petrov student?).

2) The value of the deliberate identification (in a certain relation) of two conceivable units (cf. associated mention of the identity of the same units in A student Petrov did not appear on the exam).

3) the value of the fact of the fact to date (or period) of the time, which is expressed here in the absence of verb (Wed: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student).

4) The value of the unconditional reality of the fact, also expressed by the absence of verb (Wed: Petrov would be a student if she had not fallen on the entrance exams or Be Petrov a student, he would get a place in the hostel).

5) The meaning of the only number, expressed in one, and in another word, the lack of completion (CP. Petrov-Students).

6) Next, both nouns belong to the male grammatical clan, which in this case, since these nouns denoting persons indicate a male floor (cf. Petrov - student).

We see that grammatical values \u200b\u200bare detected in opposition. Grammatical opposition (opposition) form systems called grammatical categories. The grammatical category can be defined as a number of uniform grammatical values \u200b\u200bthat are systematically expressed by those or other formal indicators. Grammar categories are extremely diverse. So, there are categories twisted, for example, in modern Russian number (the only one: multiple), the verb view (perfect: imperfect); Three-heed, for example, face (first: second: third); The polynomials, for example, in Russian and many other languages \u200b\u200b- case.

Grammar Science is traditionally divided into two large departments morphology, or grammar words, and syntax, or the grammar of a coherent speech (and in general units, large than a separate word). The separation on the morphology and syntax to a certain extent is conditionally, since the grammatical values \u200b\u200bbehind the change in the forms of the word are completely disclosed only when the syntax functions of these forms are taken into account, that is, their functions within the framework of phrases and suggestions. As part of "grammar words", an area associated with the formation of words as lexical units of the language, and an area associated with the formation of grammatical forms of the word . The first area is called science on word formation (sometimes derivatology), the second - actually morphology.

In our grammatical system, the Russian language refers to the languages \u200b\u200bof a flexive type with elements of analytization. Therefore, most grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed in it. synthetic in the way, i.e. with funds (grammatical indicators)located in the Word. These funds include the following:

1. End . With the help of ending is expressed:

· The value of the number and case of nouns;

· Kind, numbers and cases of adjectives, communities and pronouns;

· Value case value;

· The value of the face, the number and kind of verbs.

One end may express one grammatical value, and two, and three grammatical values.

2. Forming affixes . Subfixes are involved in education:

· Forms of past verb time;

· Forms of communion and verbalia;

· Forms comparative and excellent degree Adjective and inferior.

The postfix is \u200b\u200bformed:

· Forms insecurity 2 liters verb;

· Forms of the suffering pledge at the verb.

In the expression of some grammatical values \u200b\u200bcan participate word forming and basic affixes : Nouns with the help of suffixes are formed the unique forms ( hare onok - hare aT.-and) and multiple number ( husband - husbandj. -and), the consoles are formed by the verbs of the perfect species (make – from - to write - on-write)

3. Emphasis As a grammatical agent usually acts together with affixes. Independently emphasis rarely expresses grammatical values. With the help of strokes differ, for example:

· Forms of units. Part. p. and mn. h. noun ( art e.us – wall s );

· Correctiveness of verbs ( raid e.Light - section andT.).

4. Alternation by phone , as well as emphasis, is usually an additional means of distinguishing grammatical values. It most often accompanies affixation.

In the morphology of the Russian language, a significant place occupies cases of expressions of grammatical values. analytic In a way, i.e., with the help of funds outside the word. These funds include

5. Service parts of speech (Prepositions, particles). The reports are widely used to express the case values \u200b\u200bof nouns, numerical and pronouns. At the same time, they actually act with the endings (materially pronounced and zero) or without them.

6. Analytical method includes all cases of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bwith syntaxes , i.e. the means of the context surrounding the words. For example, the control expresses the case values \u200b\u200bof unchangeable nouns.

7. Some words express separate grammatical values. supplement in the way, i.e. with the help of forms with different roots ( person – people-and).

8. Intonation . The main area of \u200b\u200buse of intonation to express grammatical values \u200b\u200b- syntax.

Form and word word

The word is used in a connected text in any one of its words. For example, in the proposal On the shore of the desert waves, he stood, the Duma of the Great Full(A. Pushkin) words shore, deserted, wave, stand, he, great, fullpresented by one of these words in these words.

The word form is a morphological unit that represents one of the possible forms of a particular word. (Spring, Spring, Spring, Spring, Spring, Spring, Western, Vincen, Visnam, Visnas, About Visnas -wordform words spring,formed by changing this word on cases and numbers by joining the root of forming morpheme - endings -Ah, -s, -eetc.). Changing words have a few wordforms (depending on the features of declining or hiding), and unchangeable - one.

Classform as a unit of morphological system has a grammatical (morphological) value, shape and at the same time has a lexical value inherent in this word: if the word springdenotes a certain time years, then each of the words of this word has the same meaning.

However, some words, derivatives of lexical values \u200b\u200bare not manifested. this word, and fixed only for some of them. For example, all word word forestin his direct basic value, it is retained by this value (" big spacecovered with growing trees "), but this word has several portable values \u200b\u200bthat are fixed only for some forms of this word: forestin the meaning of "building material" does not have forms MN. numbers (A forest was brought to the construction site)and forestin the value of the "fastening design" is used only in MN. number (Forests for workers built around the housing under construction).Word tablein the meaning of furniture, it retains this value in all 12 Forms (i.e. in all cases of units. and many people), and in the meaning "Power" ( In this sanatorium a good table)it is used only in units. Numbers (6 wordform).

In describing the morphological features of words, two terms are used: wordform and (grammatical) word form. These terms express two different concepts, and therefore they should not be mixed. Formation, as has already been noted, there is a specific implementation of the word in the text with a reflection of its lexical significance and grammatical values \u200b\u200band forms, the grammatical form of a word is an indication only on private specific grammatical categories of words. For example, words silland cup holderhave the same structure and identical grammatical values \u200b\u200band forms (sewing, m. r., units., N.-wine. p.), i.e. These are the same forms of words, but at the same time it is different wordforms, as these are word formatters of different words.

The word form can be represented by one word form: say, say, or a combination of two words: Forms of a significant word and service word - auxiliary verb be or forming particles: i'll speak, i would say. The word shape represented by one word form is called synthetic. The overwhelming majority of forms are related to the number of synthetic different parts speech. The word shape represented by the combination of forms of a significant and official word is called analytical. Analytical forms include the forms of the future time of verbs imperfect species (i'll speak, will talk, will say, will talk...); the so-called shape of the joint action ( we will(those) speak, come on(those) say, come on(those) speak) and all forms of the subjunctive ignition ( i would say, he said, said, they would say).

Morphological paradigm

Wordformes of a changing word in their aggregate form a strictly organized system - paradigm of the word word paradigm.

In morphology, the term "paradigm" has two meanings:

1) system of word forms forming one lex (word declining paradigm skyetc. verb Huzzling Paradigm to readetc.);

2) sample, pattern scheme (paradigm of the 1st decline of noun, paradigm II of the leasing of the verb, paradigm of changes in the names of adjectives in comparison degrees, etc.).

Three varieties of paradigms are distinguished - complete, incomplete and redundant. A variety is complete is a crossed paradigm.

The complete paradigm is a paradigm that has a complete set of word forms for one or another category characteristic of this part of speech. The full paradigm reflects the regular and frequency words of the selection of one or another part of speech, is the norm of the word-substitution system of the word system of a certain part of speech.

The full paradigm for the declination of nouns of nouns consists of 12 wordforms (declining by cases of cases in units. And MN. Number), the full paradigm of the verbs of the perfect species consists of 10 wordforms (lifting for persons and numbers in the future and in labor and numbers in the past), full The paradigm of the verbs of the imperfect species has 16 wordforms (lifting in the present time on persons and numbers; in the future, on persons and numbers; in the past time, according to childbirth and numbers), etc.

The crossed paradigm is such a paradigm when two different words in decline or linakes have partially common paradigms (several identical words for two different words). Paradigms, as it were, merge or crossed. This phenomenon is widespread in the sphere of adjectives, pronoun, communities when the forms of m. And cf. R.; And the verb system such paradigms are single.

The names of adjectives of all discharges when the forms of m. And cf. The genus regularly has intersecting paradigms, which coincide in all cases, except for the very cognitive and vinitive (if V. \u003d I.). Similar paradigms in ordinal numerical, communals, pronoun, adjectives (and in words he, it).

For example, verbs be sentencedand takeas well as derivatives from them (turn, stew, post, layet al.) Have a crossed paradigm in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd face of this (or future simple) time.

But in the past time, each verb has its own paradigm of the genus and numbers.

An incomplete paradigm is an incomplete set of forms of word-bypass of a particular word in a particular category. The default set of forms is established by comparing with the full paradigm of the same word. For example, a complete paradigm of changes in cases of cases and numbers of nouns names is 12 members. Word dreamit has an incomplete delicate paradigm - there is no form. p. MN. h., word honeyhe has an incomplete deposition paradigm, since he has no case forms of MN. h.; the words slices, woodcuthave only one case form - genus. p. MN. h. In addition, words honey, cream, woodwood, shanthere are also incomplete paradigms of numbers - do not change in numbers.

Excess paradigm is a paradigm containing large quantity Forms than a complete paradigm of word paradigm for one category or another. For example, a word personit has an excess paradigm of the number, because when forming forms of the plural, in addition to the form people,has in indirect cases in combination with a numerical shape of a plural number from the word person:rod. P. - five peopledates. P. - five peopletV. P. - five peoplealthough the pelvic paradigm in the plural is incomplete, there is no shape to them, p. - man.Paradigm of the number of words yearit is also redundant: year - years - year - summer(Form them. n. summerdetermined as outdated, but the form of the genus. n. in combination with numerical turns output: five years;type form five yearsaccording to consumed). Excessive Hiding Paradiga (Facial Categories and Numbers) Hold Type Verbs drip, moving, meowand some others who are suited along with forms meow, meoweuchetetc., move movingand etc., drip, drippingetc. have forms meal, meauchit; drive, drive; Droplet, droplet.

When establishing the nature of the paradigm, paradigm should be compared to the paradigm as a word separation rate of this part of speech with a paradigm of a specific word form form. Comparison may show that the same paradigm can be full of one category, incompletely on the other and excess on the third. For example, a word driphas a full paradigm of kind (Channel, dripped, drop)and excess paradigm by number and face (Dropletand drip, kapeletand dripping, dropand kapateetand etc.); verb winit has an incomplete paradigm in the face (no 1st person, units. h.) and full paradigms in terms of number and genus.

At the head of each full paradigm costs source form, i.e., representing a word form with a call function ( word shape). In the verb paradigm, the initial form is infinitive, in the paradigm of the noun and adjective - the form. At the same time, in the medium paradigm for the original form, the form is taken by them. p. h., and in the paradigm of the adjective - the form of them. p. h. Husband. R.

Formally pronounced grammatical values \u200b\u200bthat are in opposition relations (opposition) constitute a grammatical category. The grammatical category is a bilateral unit of a morphological system of a language that has a content plan (possesses its semantics) and an expression plan (possessing its external indicators, forms, with which this semantics is expressed).

FROM semantic Point of view The grammatical category is a set of homogeneous grammatical values. Thus, the general value of the category of adjective names consists of two private values \u200b\u200b- the only and plural; The overall semantics of the nouns names include private values \u200b\u200bof 6 pelvices.

Private grammatical values \u200b\u200bin turn can be composed, clad. For example, the value of the genitive case consists of several values: the values \u200b\u200bof the belonging, the values \u200b\u200bof the part, the value of the subject, etc. Such grammatical values \u200b\u200bmay be called elementary. They are ingenious.

FROM formal Point of view The grammatical category is a set of grammatical forms that serve to express private grammatical values.

Private grammatical values \u200b\u200bexpressed by grammatical forms form opposition (opposition), which constitute the essence of the grammatical category.

Grammatical formsCombining several grammatical values \u200b\u200bjoin the opposition for several features. The most clearly manifests grammatical values \u200b\u200bin forms, opposed only by one character.

Grammatical categories differ from each other not only by the nature of the opposition, but also by the number of opposable members. For instance. The grammatical category of the number of nouns, consists of 2 members and forms only one opposition; The grammatical category of the verb time consists of 3 and forms 3 opposition. The largest number of members (6) in Russian has a category of case (15 oppositions).

When analyzing grammatical categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of the semantic and formal plans: if some plan is absent, then it is impossible to consider this phenomenon category. For example, there is no reason to consider the morphological category to oppose the names of their own nominal, since this opposition does not find a consistent formal expression. It is not a category Contrasting of verb Hinders, but for a different reason: the clear formal indicators (endings) of the I-II of the Loans do not serve to express some semantic differences between the verbs of different hinge.

The grammatical categories are morphological (classification and word-only) and syntactic. Depending on whether members (components) of the morphological category of the same words are presented (components) or they are represented only by the forms of different words, morphological categories are divided into two groups: non-conventionaland word dissimilar.

Non-conventional - these are categories whose members cannot be represented by the forms of the same word. They find their expression in opposing words by their grammatical properties. On this basis, the whole vocabulary composition of the language can be divided into grammatical classes (therefore such categories are also called classification). Classification are, for example, the category of the genus and the category of animation of ~ inanimacy among nouns.

Value-measurement categories are categories whose members can be represented by the forms of the same word. They are expressed in opposition of various words of one word. For example, the category of the face of the verb is a word-only, as it is enough to compare different forms The same verb.

Depending on which links and relationships are reflected in categorical values, morphological categories are divided into categories, revealed syntagmatically (in syntactic combination) and nonintagmatically. Under syntagmatic identification means the detection of morphological categories in such ties of words, in which the form of one word indicates its direct dependence on the form of another word (or from the word as a whole) or itself determines the form of another word: red tent (Sladform red Subordinate word form tent And at the same time it is predetermined); read a book (Sladform book Subordinate to the Word to read); knock wheel (Sladform wheel Subordinate to the Word knock).

TO syntagmatically detectable The following morphological categories include:

1) categories of kind, numbers and cases of adjectives, expressing the adjective ability to act as a coordinated definition of the noun, as well as categories and numbers of verb, expressing the ability of the verb to be coordinated in childbirth and the number with the subject-noun;

2) category of the kind of nouns expressing the ability of the nouns to have with them agreed in the kind of adjective, as well as coordinated in kind with the legend-verb in the forms of the past time and the subjunctive inclination;

All these categories are detected based on syntactic links. The category of collateral refers to syntagmatically detectable, but this detection has special: It involves not unidirectional or (when coordinating) mutual syntactic bonds, but entire syntax structures.

TO unintagmatically detectable The morphological categories whose values \u200b\u200breflect various semantic abstractions distracted from properties, bonds and relations of non-voice reality, such as the quantitative relationship of objects, the degree of manifestation of the feature, limited or non-limitation of the action limit, the temporal attitude of the action, its reality, or unreality. These include the category of the number of nouns, the category of the degree of comparison of the adjective and adverb, the categories of the species, time and incidence of verb. To identify all these categories, independence is characterized by subordinates words.

And syntagmatically, and unintagmatically detectable categories can be both word-revenue (for example, the case and number of nouns, time and inclination of the verb) and non-substitution (for example, the genus noun, type of verb).

Morphological categories Belongs to parts of speech and largely determine their specificity. In Russian, nouns and adjectives have a category of kind, numbers and cases, each of which is different in different ways in the system of nouns and adjectives. The names are generally inherent only inherent in the category of case. The pronouns have categories of kind, numbers and cases that are not alternatively characterize different discharges of this part of speech. The verb has a category of collateral, challenge, numbers, time, face, kind. The comparison degrees are characteristic of the names of adjectives, the shorter, state category words.

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