The core of economic thought (as a science) is the history of political economy, which was formed as an independent science in the era of the formation of capitalism. First of all, the formation of capitalist relations took place in England, where the development and spread of manufactory production took place, which brought to life new sources of profit, i.e.
In addition to merchant capital, industrial capital is being formed here. Therefore, the views of the mercantilists, who prove the profitability of only foreign trade during the period of development of capitalism (by the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries), comes into conflict with practice. In this regard, a scientific substantiation of the subordination of commercial capital to industrial capital was required. This was the reason for the formation of the classical school of bourgeois political economy, which carried out the mission of defending the superiority of capitalist production over feudal production. Thus, the classical school replaced mercantilism.
Classical political economy is an economic system that developed by the end of the 18th century and long time became the mainstream of economic thought. Political economy studies the production relations of people and economic laws. She was formed and received great development only in 2 countries: in England and in France, although mercantilism was more widespread
The classical school took shape at the end of the 18th century. and, despite the diversity and multiplicity of its constituent currents, had several common features:
1) the subject of research was the sphere of material production, where the patterns of its development were revealed;
2) the value of the goods was determined through the labor costs for its production (i.e.
Labor theory of value);
3) state intervention in the economy was recognized as unnecessary, tk. it was believed that the market could regulate itself.
The merit of the economists of the classical school and their contribution to the development of economic science is the transfer of the analysis of phenomena from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production itself and the discovery of the internal laws of capitalist production and the search for the laws of its movement. The “classics” presented the processes taking place in the economy in the most generalized form as a sphere of interrelated laws and categories, as a logically coherent system of relations. The representatives of the classical school of political economy are Adam Smith and David Ricardo, who showed that the source of wealth is not foreign trade (like the mercantilists) and not nature as such (like the physiocrats), but the sphere of production, labor activity in its various forms. The labor theory of value (value), which does not completely refute the usefulness of the product, served as one of the starting points of political economy.
The classical school became a solid foundation for the development of political economy, since the classics outlined the range of fundamental problems, formed the main tasks facing science and created research tools, without which its further development is impossible.
classical school in economic theory originated in the last third of the 17th century, i.e. during the period of domination of late mercantilism, and dominated economic thought until the end of the 19th century, until it was replaced by new economic schools.
As always, the new economic school, which later received the name classical, emerged as an opposition movement, opposing itself to the mercantilism that dominated at that time. At the same time, of course, the new school sought to solve those questions that mercantilism could not answer, and to explore those phenomena that were left unattended by it.
It is worth noting that the people who created the economic classics belonged to a different formation than the mercantilists. They were not practitioners of economics or public administration, but they were enlightened people, and an enlightened person of this time was a humanist. Therefore, the first representatives of the classical school raised those questions that the mercantilists ignored, because for mercantilism these questions were not essential. The first such question was What is the wealth of a people?(Not the state, but the people!) And after the answer to this question was given, new questions inevitably arose, in order to answer which the classical school was forced to investigate the sphere of production. But, having begun research from the sphere of production, the classical school then returned to the analysis of the sphere of circulation, but from new positions, proposing new principles of pricing and a new explanation of the nature of money.
In the history of the classical economic school, four stages can be distinguished, which roughly correspond to the stages in the development of the capitalist structure of society. The first period in the history of economic classics is the period before Adam Smith. In the history of the economy and society, it corresponds to the period of the formation of capitalism, when entrepreneurship penetrates not only into trade, but also into industrial and agricultural production. At this time, entrepreneurs become an influential political force, and states refuse to interfere in the economy. Among the prominent economists of the first period of the development of the classical school, we must mention William Petty, Pierre Boisguillebert, as well as representatives of the school of physiocrats F. Quesnay and A. Turgot.
The second period in the history of the classical school (the last third of the 18th century) is associated with the activities of one person - Adam Smith and his Wealth of nations which became an economic bestseller.
The third period in the history of the classical economic school covers the first half of the 19th century. At this time, many economists tried to develop the ideas of A. Smith and build a logically complete theory of economics. Among these economists we must mention David Ricardo, Jean Baptiste Say, as well as T. Malthus, N. Senior and G. Carrie. And in the history of the economy, this period coincided with the heyday of pure capitalism, when capital actively penetrated into the sphere of production, which resulted in the industrial revolution, which took place in the absence of a shortage of resources and labor, as well as in conditions of dissatisfaction with demand for industrial products.
The fourth stage in the history of the classical school coincided with the period of the crisis of pure capitalism in the second half of the 19th century. At this time, it turned out that without state intervention, the economy becomes too prone to crises, and competition between entrepreneurs ends with the formation of monopolies. Moreover, during this period it turned out that free competition brings less profit than the policy of protectionism and restriction of competition. And among the classical economists at that time, we can mention J. S. Mill and K. Marx, who brought political economy to its logical conclusion (and to some extent to the point of absurdity.)
And at the end of the paragraph, let's talk about the main distinguishing features economic classics; about the basic principles on which the whole theory of political economy was built. First, the classical school explored the sphere of production, making the sphere of circulation secondary. Applying the logical apparatus, which included the causal method, deduction and induction, as well as scientific abstraction, the classics derived their economic laws from the laws of production, which are of an objective nature. And since the laws of production were axioms for the classical school, the results obtained did not need experimental verification.
Secondly, the laws of pricing in the classical school followed from the laws of production, i.e. prices were cost-based. Since market prices must inevitably be based on costs, any protectionism is an attempt to deviate the economy from its ideal state. Therefore, protectionism was perceived negatively by the classical school.
Fourthly, the classical school of economics tried to comprehensively explore the problems of economic development and improving the welfare of the population. But at the same time, she did not have sufficient apparatus to study these problems and built her analysis on unproven laws, such as, for example, Say's law.
Fifthly, the classical economic school came to the conclusion about the commodity nature of money, i.e. to the fact that money is a special commodity, spontaneously separated from the rest of the mass of goods. And money in classical political economy was given, basically, the role of a means of circulation. The influence of the monetary sector of the economy on the real one, which was actively studied by the mercantilists, was neglected by the classics.
Along with behaviorism and Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis. This is how the Austrian doctor called his teaching Sigmund Freud(1856-1939).
At first, Freud was engaged in the treatment of patients with neuroses. mental disorders of people. He tries to explain the symptoms of the disease by the dynamics of nervous processes. However, neither in physiology, nor in the psychology of consciousness that prevailed at that time, he saw the means to explain the causes of pathological changes in the psyche of his patients. And not knowing the reasons, I had to act blindly.
And then Freud turned to the hidden, deep layers of the human psyche. Before Freud, they were not the subject of psychology, after him they became an integral part of it.
Freud made important discovery, which overturned the traditional view of the psyche: in the life of a person, the predetermining role is played by his unconscious desires, aspirations and inclinations, rather than consciousness and reason. Thus, the primary role in a person's life is played by sexual desires, and often they are the causes of nervous and mental illnesses. But these same drives take part in the creation of the highest cultural values of the human spirit.
Freud claims that the unconscious is rooted in the natural givenness of the human being. So, Freud created theory of the unconscious. According to her, there are three areas in the human psyche: consciousness - I (ego), preconscious - Super-I (superego) and unconscious - IT (id).
preconscious consists of hidden or latent knowledge. This is the knowledge that a person has, but which in this moment are not present. Concerning consciousness, then Freud assigned him the role of a servant of the unconscious. He even says that the mind is powerless in the face of unconscious drives (it should not be forgotten that Freud worked primarily with neurotic patients who really could not be responsible for their actions).
Super-I- contains a system of values and norms that are compatible with those accepted in the environment of a person, which allow him to distinguish what is good and what is bad, what is moral and immoral. Freud divided the superego into two subsystems: conscience and the ego-ideal. Conscience includes the ability for critical self-assessment, and the Ego-ideal forms from what the parents and the person himself approve and highly value, it leads the person to establish high standards for himself.
The Super-I does not let the instincts into the "I", and then the energy of these instincts is sublimated.
Sublimation- this is the transformation of the energy of repressed, forbidden desires into other activities that are allowed in society. If the energy of "libido" does not find a way out, then a person will have mental illness, neuroses, tantrums, longing. To save from the conflict between "I" and "IT" used means of psychological protection. Protective behavior allows a person to protect himself from those problems that he cannot solve yet, allows you to relieve anxiety from threatening events (loss of a loved one, favorite toy, loss of love from other people, loss of love for yourself, etc.), allows " get away from a threatening reality”, sometimes transform this threat.
Freud singled out the following defense mechanisms:
1) repression of desires- involuntary removal of unpleasant or unlawful desires, thoughts, feelings, experiences in certain situations from consciousness to the area of the unconscious psyche "IT"; suppression is never final, repressed thoughts do not lose their activity in the unconscious, and to prevent their breakthrough into consciousness, a constant expenditure of mental energy is required, as a result of which energy may not be enough to maintain a person’s activity and health, as a result, repression is often a source of bodily psychogenic diseases. nature (headaches, arthritis, ulcers, asthma, heart disease, hypertension, etc.). The psychic energy of repressed desires is present in the body of a person, regardless of his consciousness, finds its painful bodily expression. The result of suppression is a demonstrative indifference to this area of reality. Allocate complete suppression - when painful experiences are so suppressed that a person completely forgets them, and does not know that they were in his life, but they indirectly affect his health and behavior. Repression is partial suppression, a person “restrains” experiences, tries not to think about them, but cannot completely forget them, and repressed experiences “erupt” in the form of unexpected violent affects, inexplicable actions, etc .;
2) negation- withdrawal into fantasy, denial of any event as "untruth". “This cannot be” - a person shows a vivid indifference to logic, does not notice contradictions in his judgments;
3) rationalization- an unconscious attempt to justify, explain one's wrong or absurd behavior, the construction of acceptable moral, logical justifications, arguments to explain and justify unacceptable forms of behavior, thoughts, actions, desires, and, as a rule, these justifications and explanations do not correspond to the true reason for the act committed, and the true reason may not be realized by a person;
4) inversion or opposition- substitution of actions, thoughts, feelings that meet a genuine desire, with diametrically opposed behavior, thoughts, feelings (for example, a child initially wants to receive his mother's love for himself, but, not receiving this love, begins to experience the exact opposite desire to annoy his mother, anger her, cause a quarrel and hatred of the mother towards herself);
5) projection - an unconscious attempt to get rid of an obsessive desire, an idea by attributing it to another person, attributing one's own qualities, thoughts, feelings to another person - that is, "distance of the threat from oneself." When something is condemned in others, it is precisely this that a person does not accept in himself, but he cannot recognize it, does not want to understand that these same qualities are inherent in him. For example, a person claims that "some Jews are deceivers", although in fact this may mean: "I sometimes deceive"; thus, projection allows a person to place the blame on someone else for their shortcomings and blunders. Projection also explains social prejudice and the scapegoat phenomenon, since ethnic and racial stereotypes are a convenient target for attributing negative personality characteristics to someone else;
6) substitution- the manifestation of an emotional impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one. For example, a child, after being punished by his parents, pushes his little sister, breaks her toys, kicks the dog, that is, the sister and the dog replace the parents at whom the child is angry. Less common is this form of substitution when it is directed against oneself: hostile impulses addressed to others are redirected to oneself, which causes a feeling of depression or condemnation of oneself;
7) insulation- separation of the threatening part of the situation from the rest mental sphere, which can lead to separation, split personality, to an incomplete "I";
8) regression- a return to an earlier, primitive way of responding, stable regressions are manifested in the fact that a person justifies his actions from the position of a child’s thinking, does not recognize logic, defends his point of view, despite the correctness of the interlocutor, the person does not develop mentally and sometimes childhood habits return ( bite your nails, etc.). In severe cases, when “the present situation is unbearable for a person”, the psyche defends itself, returning to an earlier and safer period of its life, for example, to early childhood, and regression leads to a loss of memory of more later periods life. More "milder" manifestations of regression in adults include intemperance, displeasure (pouting and not talking to others), resisting authority, childish stubbornness, or driving a car at recklessly high speeds.
The Unconscious (IT) is governed by two principles: the pleasure principle and the reality principle. This means that unconsciously any person seeks, first of all, to receive pleasure, but at the same time he must reckon with the requirements of the environment (observe the principle of reality).
Those desires that a person cannot satisfy are repressed (the mechanism of repression) and are realized in fantasies. But such a suppressed and repressed desire of man continues to exist and waits only for the first opportunity to become active.
Freud identified three main forms of manifestation of the unconscious: dreams, erroneous actions(forgetting things, intentions, names, reservations, etc.) and neurotic symptoms.
In psychoanalysis, a number of methods have been developed to identify unconscious complexes. The main ones are the method of free association (say whatever comes to mind) and the method of dream analysis. Both methods involve the active work of the psychoanalyst, which consists in interpreting the words or dreams of the patient.
Thus, psychoanalysis comes to the conclusion that the psyche is wider than consciousness.
Psychoanalysis was developed in the person of Carl Jung (1875-1961) and Alfred Adler (1870-1937).
The period of "full laisser faire" became the motto of a new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives debunked mercantilism and the protectionist policy promoted by it in the economy, putting forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism.
In the development of classical political economy, with a certain conventionality, four stages can be distinguished.
First step covers the period from the end of the XVII century. until the beginning of the second half of the 18th century. This is the stage of a significant expansion of the sphere of market relations, reasoned refutation of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debunking. The main representatives of the beginning of this stage, W. Petty and P. Boisguillebert, regardless of each other, were the first in the history of economic thought to put forward the labor theory of value, according to which the source and measure of value is the amount of labor expended on the production of a particular commodity product or good. Condemning mercantilism and proceeding from the causal dependence of economic phenomena, they saw the basis of the wealth and welfare of the state not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production.
The so-called physiocratic school, which became widespread in France in the middle and early second half of the 18th century, completed the first stage of classical political economy. Leading authors of this school F. Quesnay and A. Turgot in search of a source pure product(national income), along with labor, land was given decisive importance. Criticizing mercantilism, the Physiocrats delved even more deeply into the analysis of the sphere of production and market relations, although mainly on the problems of agriculture, unduly moving away from the analysis of the sphere of circulation. The second stage in the development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the 18th century. and is associated with the name and work of Adam Smith, the central figure among its representatives. His "economic man" and "invisible hand" of providence convinced more than one generation of economists of the natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people, of the spontaneous operation of objective economic laws. Largely thanks to him. Until the 30s of the XX century, the provision on non-interference of government regulations in free competition was considered irrefutable. The third stage in the evolution of the "classical school" of political economy falls on the first half of the 19th century. During this period, followers, including students of A. Smith, subjected to in-depth processing and rethinking of the main ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Among the representatives of this stage, the French J.B. Say and F. Bastiat, the English D. Ricardo, T. Malthus and N. Senior, the American G. Carey and others. Each of them left a rather noticeable mark in the history of economic thought and the formation of market relations. The fourth stage in the development of classical political economy covers the second half of the 19th century, during which J.S. Mill and K. Marx summarized the best achievements of the school. Continuing the general characterization of almost two hundred years of the history of classical political economy, it is necessary to single out its common features, approaches and trends.
Firstly, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the predominant analysis of the problems of the sphere of production in isolation from the sphere of circulation, the development and application of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. The opposition between the spheres of production and circulation, characteristic of the classics, caused an underestimation of the natural interconnection of economic entities in these spheres, the reverse influence on the sphere of production of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Secondly, based on causal analysis, calculations of average and total values of economic indicators, the classics tried to identify the mechanism for the formation of the cost of goods and price fluctuations in the market due to production costs or, in another interpretation, the amount of labor expended. Not being able to resolve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the final consumer, but were forced to start their constructions from the actions of a businessman for whom consumer utility estimates are given.
Thirdly, the category "value" was recognized by the authors of the "classical school" as the only initial category of economic analysis, from which, as in the scheme of a genealogical tree, other essentially derivative categories bud (grow). This kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led the "classical school" to the fact that economic research itself, as it were, imitated the mechanical adherence to the laws of physics, i.e. search purely internal causes economic well-being in society without taking into account psychological, moral, legal and other factors of the social environment.
Fourth, by exploring the problems of economic growth and improving the well-being of the people, the classics tried to justify the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy. However, at the same time, as is well known, they "managed" without a serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems, which make it possible to choose the best ( Alternative option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the "classical school" considered the achievement of equilibrium in the economy to be automatically possible, sharing the "law of markets" by J. B. Say.
Finally, fifthly, money, which has long and traditionally been considered an artificial invention of people, during the period of classical political economy was recognized as a commodity spontaneously released in the world of commodities, which cannot be "cancelled" by any agreements between people. Among the classics, the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Boisguillebert. At the same time, many authors of the "classical school" until the middle of the XIX century. they did not attach due importance to the various functions of money, highlighting mainly one - the function of the medium of circulation, i.e. interpreting the monetary commodity as a thing, as a technical means convenient for exchange. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the aforementioned misunderstanding of the reverse effect of monetary factors on the sphere of production.
Behaviorism arose in the USA and was a reaction to the structuralism of W. Wundtai and E. Titchener and American functionalism. Its founder was J. Watson (1878-1958), whose article "Psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist" (1913) laid the foundation for the direction. In it, the author criticized psychology for subjectivism, calling "... consciousness with its structural units, elementary sensations, sensual tones, attention, perception, representation only indefinite expressions", as well as for practical uselessness. He proclaimed the study of behavior in an objective way and with the aim of serving practice as the subject of behaviorism. "Behaviorism claims to be the laboratory of society."
The philosophical basis of behaviorism is an alloy of positivism and pragmatism. As scientific prerequisites, J. Watson named research on the psychology of animals, especially E. Thorndike, as well as the school of objective psychology. However, all these studies were, as Watson assessed them, "rather a reaction to anthropomorphism, and not to psychology as a science of consciousness" 3 . He also noted the influence of the works of I. P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev.
Human behavior as a subject of behaviorism is all actions and words, both acquired and innate, what people do from birth to death. Behavior is any reaction (R) in response to an external stimulus (5), through which the individual adapts. This is a combination of changes in smooth and striated muscles, as well as changes in the glands that follow in response to an irritant. Thus, the concept of behavior is interpreted extremely broadly: it includes any reaction, including secretion by the gland, and vascular response. At the same time, this definition is extremely narrow, since it is limited only to the externally observable: physiological mechanisms and mental processes are excluded from analysis as unobservable. As a result, behavior is interpreted mechanistically, since it is reduced only to its external manifestations.
“The main task of behaviorism is to accumulate observations of human behavior in such a way that in each given case, with a given stimulus (or, better, situations), the behaviorist can say in advance what the reaction will be or, if a reaction is given, what situation this reaction is caused by” 4 . These are the two problems of behaviorism. Watson classifies all reactions on two grounds: whether they are acquired or hereditary; internal (hidden) or external (external). As a result, reactions are distinguished in behavior: external or visible acquired (for example, playing tennis, opening a door, etc. motor skills); internal or latent acquired (thinking, by which in behaviorism is meant external "speech); external (visible) hereditary (for example, grasping, sneezing, blinking, as well as reactions to fear, rage, love, i.e. instincts and emotions, but described purely objectively in terms of stimuli and reactions); internal (hidden) hereditary reactions of the endocrine glands, changes in blood circulation, etc., studied in physiology. Subsequently, Watson made a distinction between instinctive and emotional reactions: “... if adaptations are caused by an internal stimulus and relate to the body of the subject, then we have an emotion, for example, blushing; if the stimulus leads to adaptation of the organism, then we have an instinct - for example, grasping” 5 .
Observation of the newborn has led to the conclusion that the number of complex unlearned responses at birth and shortly thereafter is relatively small and cannot provide accommodations. The behaviorist does not find data confirming the existence of hereditary forms of behavior, such as crawling, climbing, pugnacity, hereditary abilities (musical, artistic, etc.) - In practice, behavior is the result of training. He believes in the power of education. “Give me a dozen healthy strong children and people, and I will undertake to make each of them a specialist of my choice: a doctor, a merchant, a lawyer, and even a beggar and a thief, regardless of their talents, inclinations, tendencies and abilities, as well as profession and the races of their ancestors" 6 . Therefore, skill and learning become the main problem of behaviorism. Speech, thinking are considered as types of skills. A skill is an individually acquired or learned action. It is based on elementary movements, which are innate. A new or learned element in a skill is the linking together or combining of separate movements in such a way as to produce a new activity. Watson described the process of developing a skill, built a learning curve (using the example of learning to shoot from a bow). At first, random trial movements predominate, many mistakes are skirt movements, and only a few are successful. The initial accuracy is low. The improvement over the first 60 shots is fast, then slower. Periods without improvement are observed - on the curve these sections are called "plateaus". The curve ends with the physiological limit inherent in the individual. Successful movements are associated with great changes in the organism, so that they are better served and physiologically "because of this they tend to be fixed.
The retention of skills constitutes memory. In contradiction with the attitude to the refusal to study unobservable mechanisms of behavior, Watson puts forward a hypothesis about such mechanisms, which he calls the principle of conditioning. Calling all hereditary reactions unconditioned reflexes, and acquired ones - conditioned, .J. Watson argues that the most important condition for the formation of a connection between them is the simultaneity in the action of the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, so that stimuli that initially did not cause any reaction now begin to cause it. It is assumed that the connection is the result of switching excitation in the central instance to the path of a stronger, i.e., unconditioned stimulus. However, the behaviorist does not deal with this central process, limiting himself to observing the relationship of the response with all new stimuli.
In behaviorism, the process of skill formation and learning is treated mechanistically. Skills are formed through blind trial and error and are an unguided process. Here one of the possible paths is presented as the only and obligatory 7 . Despite these limitations, Watson's concept laid the foundation for a scientific theory of the process of motor skill formation and learning in general.
7 There is another way, which is based on the management of the process of skill formation: a system of conditions necessary for an action is identified, and its implementation is organized with an orientation towards these conditions.
By the mid-20s. behaviorism became widespread in America, which allowed E. Boring to write: “... it will not be an exaggeration to say that at present behaviorism is a typical American psychology, despite the fact that, perhaps, most American psychologists will refuse to call themselves behaviorists" 8 . At the same time, it became increasingly clear to researchers that the exclusion of the psyche leads to an inadequate interpretation of behavior. E. Tolman pointed this out in his criticism of Watson, calling his approach molecular 9 . Indeed, if its motivational-cognitive components are excluded from behavior, it is impossible to explain the integration of individual reactions into a particular act or activity such as “a person builds a house”, swims, writes a letter, etc. J. Watson’s statement that the behaviorist is interested in the behavior of the whole person, is in no way secured by his mechanistically atomistic position and even contradicts it, which he himself admitted. "The behaviorist in his scientific activity uses tools, the existence of which he denies both in his object and in himself." Due to the mechanism in the interpretation of behavior, a person in behaviorism acts as a reacting being, his active conscious activity is ignored. “Environmental conditions influence us so much that at a given moment, under given conditions, any object can cause only a strictly appropriate and conditioned mode of action” 10 . This does not take into account the qualitative changes that occur in behavior with the transition to humans: the data obtained in animal studies are transferred to humans. Watson emphasized that he wrote this work and considered man as an animal organism. Hence naturalism in the interpretation of man. Man "...is an animal distinguished by verbal behavior" 11 .
The hidden basis of behaviorism is the identification of the psyche with its introspective understanding in the psychology of consciousness. According to Vygotsky and Rubinstein, ignoring consciousness, the psyche, instead of rebuilding the introspectionist concept of consciousness, is the essence of Watson's radical behaviorism. Obviously, it is impossible to put the denial of the psyche at the basis of psychology. At the same time, Watson's historical merit is the study of behavior and the sharp formulation of the problem of an objective approach in psychology. Also important is the task put forward by him to control human behavior, the focus of scientific research on connection with practical problems. However, due to the mechanistic approach to a person as a reacting organism, the implementation of this task gets b Behaviorism is a direction that dehumanizes a person: management begins to be identified with the manipulation of a person.
Back in 1913, W. Hunter, in experiments with delayed reactions, showed that the animal reacts not only directly to the stimulus: behavior involves the processing of the stimulus in the body. This posed a new problem. An attempt to overcome the simplified interpretation of behavior according to the stimulus-response scheme due to the introduction of internal processes that unfold in the body under the influence of a stimulus and affect the response was made by various variants of neobehaviorism. It also develops new models of conditioning, and the results of research are widely disseminated in various areas of social practice. The foundations of neobehaviorism were laid by E. Tolman (1886-1959). In the book Target Behavior of Animals and Man (1932), he showed that experimental observations of animal behavior do not correspond to Watson's molecular understanding of stimulus-response behavior. Behavior, according to Tolman, is a molar phenomenon, i.e., a holistic act, which is characterized by its own properties: goal orientation, comprehension, plasticity, selectivity, expressed in the willingness to choose means leading to the goal by shorter paths. The introduction of the concepts of goal (intention), field into the characterization of behavior reflects Tolman's position in relation to other areas in psychology: he recognized the compatibility of behaviorism with Gestalt psychology, depth psychology. Convinced of the complexity of determining behavior, Tolman distinguished three varieties of its determinants: independent variables (initial causes of behavior) stimuli and the initial physiological state of the organism; abilities, i.e., specific properties of the organism; intervening internal variables (intervening variables) - intentions (goals) and cognitive processes. In opposing the subjectivist interpretation of these formations in the spirit of the old mentalism, Tolman made precisely the intervening variables the subject of his own experimental studies. In experiments on latent learning, vicarious trial and error, hypotheses, etc., the concept of a “cognitive map” was formulated. A cognitive map is a structure that develops in the animal's brain as a result of processing external influences. It includes a complex significative structure of the relationship between stimuli and goals (sign - gestalt) and determines the animal's behavior in the situation of an actual task. The combination of such maps makes it possible to adequately navigate the situation of life tasks in general, including for a person. Despite all the reservations associated with attempts to avoid mentalism, in fact, as a result of the introduction of intermediate variables, behavior actually acquires a psychological characteristic. Tolman extended the conclusions obtained on animals to humans, thereby sharing Watson's biologizing positions.
A major contribution to the development of neobehaviorism was made by K. Hull (1884-1952). His hypothetical-deductive theory of behavior took shape under the influence of the ideas of Pavlov, Thorndike, and Watson. Own experimental research unfolded in the field of learning in animals. Like Watson's theory, Hull's theory does not take into account the factor of consciousness, but unlike Watson, instead of the stimulus-response scheme, Hull introduces a formula proposed back in 1929 by Woodworth, stimulus-organism-reaction, where the organism is some invisible things occurring inside it processes. They can be described objectively, like stimulus and response: they are the results of prior learning (a skill, in Hull's terminology), a deprivation regimen derived from drive, drug injections, etc. Behavior begins with stimulation from the outside world or from a state of need and ends with a response . “The evolution of organic processes has led to the appearance of that form nervous system in higher organisms, which, under the influence of need and muscular activity, will cause, without previous training, those changes in movements that would be likely to nullify the need. This kind of activity we call behavior. Using logical and mathematical analysis, Hull tried to identify the relationship between these variables, stimuli and behavior. He formulated the laws of behavior - theoretical postulates that establish relationships between the main variables that determine behavior. Hull believed that the main determinant of behavior was ignorance. The need causes the activity of the organism, its behavior. The reaction force (reaction potential) depends on the strength of the need. The need determines the nature of behavior, different in response to different needs. The most important condition for the formation of a new connection, according to Hull, is the adjacency of the stimulus, reactions and reinforcement, which reduces the need. Thus, Hull accepts Thorndike's law of effect. The strength of the connection (reaction potential) depends on the number of reinforcements and is a function of it, and it also depends on the delay of the reinforcement. Hull emphasizes the crucial role of reinforcement in the formation of new bonds. He owns a thorough theoretical and experimental development and mathematical calculation of the dependence of the reaction on the nature of the reinforcement (partial, intermittent, constant), on the time of its presentation. These learning factors have been supplemented by principles. The fact of unequal behavior of the animal on different sections of the path in the process of developing a skill, which appeared in experiments with labyrinths (the speed of bypassing dead ends at the beginning and at the end of the maze is not the same, and in the second case it is greater; the number of errors in sections far from the goal is greater than at the end of the labyrinth; the speed of movement in the maze during its repeated passage is greater at the end of the path than at the beginning) is called the goal gradient. The phenomena described by Hull testified to the holistic - molar - nature of behavior. In the principle of the target gradient, Hull saw the similarity of his concept with K. Lewin's theory of field forces. The integration of individual motor acts into a holistic behavioral act is facilitated by anticipatory reactions or anticipatory responses to irritation - experimentally discovered phenomena of partial responses that contribute to finding actions that lead to the goal. Thus, it was observed that in the process of training the animal goes less and less deeply into dead ends or even only slows down movements around them, just as in the process of developing a conditioned reflex, there comes a moment when, before the appearance of danger, animals carry out defensive, i.e. e. expedient, actions only on a signal of danger. Hull considered anticipatory reactions as functional equivalents of ideas, goals, intentions.
The experience of a mathematical approach to describing behavior in the Hull system influenced the subsequent development of mathematical learning theories. Under the direct influence of Hull, N. E. Miller and O. G. Maurer began to deal with issues of learning. They created their own concepts, remaining within the framework of traditional reinforcement theory, but using Hull's formal approach. K-Spence and his students A. Amsel, F. Logan continued the development of Hull's theoretical ideas.
Another variant of the concepts of behavior that include intermediate mechanisms in the structure of behavior is the theory of subjective behaviorism, which was proposed by D. Miller, J. Galanter, K. Pribram. Under the influence of the development of calculating machines and by analogy with the programs embedded in them, they postulated mechanisms and processes inside the body that mediate the response to a stimulus and the reality of which is beyond doubt. As such instances, linking stimulus and reaction, they called Mr Image and Plan. “An image is all the accumulated and organized knowledge of an organism about itself and about the world in which it exists ... using this term, we mean, in
basically the same type of representation that other proponents of cognitive theory have demanded. It includes everything that the organism has acquired - its assessments along with the facts - organized by means of those concepts, images or relationships that it has been able to develop: "1 *. “A plan is any hierarchically constructed process of an organism capable of controlling the order in which any sequence of operations should be performed” 14 . The image is informative, and the plan is the algorithmic aspects of the organization of behavior. Everywhere the authors point to the analogies of these formations to the programs of calculating machines. Behavior is seen as a series of movements, and man as a complex computer. The strategy of the plan is built on the basis of trials carried out in the conditions created in the way. The test is the basis of a holistic process of behavior, with the help of which it turns out that the operational phase (operate) is carried out correctly. Thus, the concept of behavior includes the idea of feedback. Each operation is preceded by a test. The unit of behavior is described according to the scheme: T-O-T-E (result).
"... The T-O-T-E scheme states that the operations performed by the body are constantly regulated by the results of various tests." The position of subjective behaviorism reflects the general trend in the development of behaviorism, when, in the words of the authors themselves, almost every behaviorist smuggles one or another type of invisible phenomena into his system - internal reactions, urges, incentives, etc. ... so does everyone for the simple reason that without this it is impossible to understand the meaning of behavior. However, the authors do not tire of emphasizing that these invisible phenomena - "intermediate variables" - should not be understood in the spirit of psychological concepts subjective introspective psychology. Their interpretation by analogy with the device of calculating machines cannot be considered satisfactory, because in a machine, images and plans are material formations, the action of which occurs automatically, while the psyche appears as a necessary condition for the subject to perform an action in new circumstances. The authors foresee that their explanation can be assessed as crude mechanistic analogies and hypotheses, but nevertheless consider them to be fairly accurate reflections of the essence of behavior. In general, subjective behaviorism in the interpretation of behavior remains within the framework of a mechanistic behaviorist methodology and does not come to a valid explanation for the regulation of human behavior.
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