Mastering ground air environment with different groups of organisms. Biology File Catalog

Habitat is a direct environment in which there is a living organism (animal or plant). It can contain both living organisms, so the objects of inanimate nature and any kind of varieties of organisms from several species to several thousand, coexisting in a certain living space. The air-terrestrial habitat includes such sections of the earth's surface, like mountains, savanna, forests, tundra, polar ice and others.

Habitat - Planet Earth

Different areas of the planet Earth are home to a huge biological diversity of species of living organisms. There are certain types of animal habitats. Hot, arid areas are often covered with hot deserts. In warm, wet regions are wet

There are 10 main types of land in the land. Each of them has many varieties, depending on where in the world it is located. Animals and plants that are typical for a certain habitat, adapt to the conditions in which they live.

African savannah

This tropical herbal air-terrestrial community habitat is found in Africa. For it, long dry periods are characterized, following wet seasons with abundant precipitation. African savannahs are home to a huge number of herbivores, as well as strong predators that feed them.

The mountains

At the tops of high mountain ranges are very cold, and only a few plants grow there. Animals living in these high places are adapted to cope with low temperatures, disadvantage of food and steep stony terrain.

Evergreen forests

Coniferous forests are often found in the cool areas of the globe: Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia and regions of Russia. They are dominated by evergreen ate, and these areas are home for animals such as elk, beaver and wolf.

Deciduous trees

In cold wet areas, many trees grow rapidly in the summer, but losing the leaves in the winter. The number of wild animals in these areas varies depending on the season, since many migrate to other areas or fall into hibernation in winter.

Moderate zone

It is characterized by dry herbaceous prairies and steppes, a melanopastic grounds, a hot summer and a cold winter. This terrestrial habitat of organisms is home to such herd herbivores such as antelopes and bison.

Mediterranean zone

The lands around the Mediterranean are distinguished by a hot climate, but precipitation here falls more than in desert areas. These areas are home for shrubs and plants that can only survive in the event of access to water and are often filled with many different types of insects.

Tundra

Such an air terrestrial habitat, like Tundra, most of the year is covered with ice. Nature comes to life only in spring and summer. Here are inhabited by deer and birds nest.

Rainforests

These thick green forests grow near the equator and have the richest biological diversity of the types of living organisms. No other habitat can boast so much inhabitants as the territory covered with tropical forests.

Polar ice

Cold regions near the northern and southern poles are covered with ice and snow. Here you can find penguins, seals and polar bears, which make themselves intake in the icy waters of the ocean.

Animals of ground-air habitats

Habitat is scattered through the huge territory of the planet Earth. Each characterizes certain biological and vegetable world, whose representatives unevenly populate our planet. In the colder parts of the world, such as polar regions, there are not so many types of fauna inhabiting these territories and specially adapted to accommodation under conditions of low temperatures. Some animals are common worldwide depending on the plants that they eat in food, for example, a giant panda inhabits those areas,

Air-terrestrial habitat

Each living body needs a house, a shelter or environment that can ensure safety, perfect temperature, feeding and reproduction - all that is necessary for survival. One of the important functions of habitat is the provision of perfect temperature, since extreme changes can destroy a whole ecosystem. An important condition is also the presence of water, air, soil and sunlight.

The temperature on Earth is not the same everywhere, in some corners of the planet (Northern and South Poles), the thermometer column can be lowered up to - 88 ° C. In other places, especially in the tropics, very warm and even hot (up to + 50 ° C). Temperature regime plays an important role in the processes of fixture of the ground-air habitat, for example, animals adapted to low temperatures cannot survive heat.

The habitat is a natural medium in which the body lives. Animals require different amounts of space. The habitat may be big and taking a whole forest or small as mink. Some inhabitants have to defend and defend a huge territory, while others need a small area of \u200b\u200bspace, where they can relatively peacefully coexist with neighbors living nearby.

Life on land depends on the condition of air. The natural mixture of gases, which pretended in the process of the evolution of the Earth, is the air that we breathe.

The air as an environment of life directs the evolutionary development of the inhabitants of this environment. Thus, the high oxygen content determines the possibility of forming a high level of energy metabolism (metabolism between the organism and the medium). The atmospheric air is distinguished by low and changeable humidity, which limited the possibilities of mastering the air environment, and its inhabitants led to the evolution of the water-salt metabolic system and the structure of the respiratory organs. It should also be noted the low air density in the atmosphere, so that life is concentrated near the ground surface and penetrates the atmosphere to the height of not more than 50-70 m (crown of tropical trees).

The main components of atmospheric air are nitrogen (N 2) - 78.08%, oxygen (0 2) - 20.9%, argon (AR) is about 1% and carbon dioxide (C0 2) - 0.03% (Table. one).

Oxygen appeared on Earth about 2 billion years ago, when the formation of the surface was occurring under the influence of active volcanic activity. Over the past 20 million years, the share of oxygen in the air gradually increased (today it is 21%). The main role in this was the development of the plant world of sushi and ocean.

Table 1. Gas composition of the Earth's atmosphere

The atmosphere protects the Earth from the meteorite bombardment. About 5 times a year in the atmosphere, fragments of meteorites, comet and asteroids are burned, the capacity of which, when meeting with the Earth, would exceed the capacity of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Most meteorites never reaches the earth's surface, they burn even when entering a huge speed into the atmosphere. Every year about 6 million tons of cosmic dust falls on Earth.

In addition, the atmosphere contributes to the preservation of heat on the planet, which would otherwise differ in the cold of outer space. The same atmosphere itself due to the strength of attraction does not disappear.

At an altitude of 20-25 km from the surface of the Earth there is a protective (layer), which is delaying the destructive ultraviolet radiation. Do not be it, such radiation could destroy life on Earth. Unfortunately, starting from the 80-90s. XX century There is a negative trend towering and destroying the ozone screen.

Under the "medium" means everything that surrounds the body and one way or another affects it. In other words, the environment of life is characterized by a certain set of environmental factors. Wednesday - Wednesday of life - aquatic environment - ground-air environment - soil environment - the body as an environment of life - key concepts.

Recognized definition environments is the definition of Nicholas Pavlovich Naumova: " Wednesday- All that the organisms surrounds, directly or indirectly affect their condition, development, survival and reproduction. "On Earth there are four qualitatively different living environments that have a set of specific environmental factors: -nable-water (sushi); - water; - the soil; - Other organisms.

Ground-air The medium is characterized by a huge variety of conditions of existence, environmental niches and their circumstances. Organisms play a primary role in the formation of the conditions of the ground-air environment of life, and above all - the gas composition of the atmosphere. Practically all the oxygen of the earth's atmosphere has a biogenic origin. The main features of the ground-air environment is

Large changes in environmental factors

Inhomogeneity of the medium

The action of the forces of earthly

Low air density.

A complex of physical and geographical and climatic factors belonging to a certain natural zone leads to the adaptation of organisms to life under these conditions, the diversity of life forms. The high oxygen content in the atmosphere (about 21%) determines the possibility of forming a high (energy) metabolic level. The atmospheric air is characterized by low and volatile humidity. This circumstance largely limited the possibility of mastering the ground-air environment.

Atmosphere (From Greek Atmos - couples and sphaira - ball), gaseous shell of the Earth. You can not specify the exact upper boundary of the earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere has a pronounced layered structure. The main layers of the atmosphere:

1)Troposphere - Height 8 - 17 km. It concentrates all water vapor and 4/5 mass of the atmosphere and develop all weather phenomena.

2)Stratosphere - layer over the troposphere up to 40 km. It is characterized by almost the complete immutability of temperature in height. In the upper part of the stratosphere, the maximum ozone concentration is observed, absorbing a large number of ultraviolet radiation of the Sun.

3) Mesosphere - layer between 40 and 80 km; At its lower half, the temperature grows from +20 to +30 degrees, in the upper - drops almost up to -100 degrees.

4) Thermosphere(ionosphere) - a layer between 80 - 1000km, which has an increased ionization of gas molecules (under the influence of unhindered penetrating cosmic radiation).

5) Exosphere(Scattering area) - a layer above 800 - 1000km, from which gases are scattered into outer space. The atmosphere passes 3/4 of solar radiation, thereby increasing the total amount of heat that goes on the development of natural processes of the Earth.

Water environment of life. Hydrosphere (from hydro ... and sphere), intermittent aqueous membrane of the Earth, located between the atmosphere and solid terrestrial crust (lithosphere). Represents the combination of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps, as well as groundwater. The hydrosphere covers about 71% of the earth's surface. The chemical composition of the hydrosphere is approaching the average composition of sea water.

The amount of fresh water is 2.5% of all water on the planet; 85% - marine water. Fresh water reserves are extremely unevenly distributed: 72.2% - ice; 22.4% - groundwater; 0.35% - atmosphere; 5, 05% - steady stock rivers and water lakes. Water that we can use is only 10-12% of all fresh water on Earth.

Primary environment Life was the water environment. First of all, most organisms are not capable of active vital activity without the receipt of water into the body or, without preserving a certain content of fluid inside the body. The main feature of the aquatic environment, is: daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations. Huge environmental importance, have high density and viscosity of water. The specific mass of water is commensurate with such a body of living organisms. Water density is approximately 1000 times higher than air density. Therefore, aqueous organisms (especially, actively moving) are faced with greater hydrodynamic resistance. High water density is the reason that mechanical oscillations (vibrations) are well distributed in the aquatic environment. This is very important for the senses, orientation in space and between the water inhabitants. The speed of sound in the aqueous medium has a higher frequency of echolocation signals. Large than in the air, four times. Therefore, there is a whole group of aquatic organisms (both plants and animals) existing without a mandatory connection with a bottom or other substrate, "soar" in the water thicker.

The ground-air medium is characterized by the features of environmental conditions that have formed specific accommodations in land plants and animals, which was expressed in the diversity of morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and behavioral adaptations.

The low density of atmospheric air makes it difficult to maintain the shape of the body, because the reference system has formed in plants and animals. In plants, these are mechanical fabrics (luban and wood fibers), which provide resistance to static and dynamic loads: wind, rain, snow cover. The intense state of the cell wall (the tour) caused by the accumulation of fluid cells in vacuoles with high osmotic pressure determines the elasticity of the leaves, the stems of herbs, flowers. In animals, supporting the body creates a hydraulic cooler (at round worms), the outer skeleton (in insects), internal (in mammals).

Low medium density facilitates animal movement. Many terrestrial species are capable of flying (active or planning) - birds and insects, there are representatives of mammals, amphibians and reptiles. Flight is associated with movement and production of production. The active flight is possible due to the modified forelimbs, developed breast muscles. The planning animals have formed between the front and rear limbs formed skin folds, which stretch and play the role of parachute.

High mobility of air masses formed in plants an ancient way to pollinate plants with wind (anemophilia) is characteristic of many plants of the middle strip and resettlement with wind. This ecological group of organisms (airplaneclunkton) has adapted thanks to a large relative surface area at the expense of parachutics, wings, outgrows and even web, or by very small sizes.

Low atmospheric pressure, which is normal of 760 mm mercury pillars (or 101 325 Pa), small pressure drops, formed almost all inhabitants of sushi sensitivity to strong pressure drops. The upper limit of life for most vertebrates is about 6,000 m. The decrease in atmospheric pressure with an increase in height above sea level reduces the solubility of oxygen in the blood. This increases the frequency of breathing, and as a result, frequent breathing leads to dehydration of the body. This simple dependence is not characteristic only for rare species of birds and some invertebrates.

The gas composition of the ground-air medium is distinguished by a high oxygen content (more than 20 times higher than in an aqueous medium). This allows animals to have a very high level of metabolism. Therefore, only homomitics could occur on land (the ability to maintain a constant body temperature is mainly due to internal energy).

The temperature value in the life of organisms is determined by the effect on the rate of biochemical reactions. An increase in temperature (up to 60 ° C) of the environment causes organisms to denature proteins. A strong decrease in temperature leads to a decrease in the metabolic rate and as a critical state - freezing of water in cells (ice crystals in cells violate the integrity of intracellular structures). Mainly on land, living organisms can only exist within 0 ° - +50 °, because These temperatures are compatible with the flow of basic processes of life. However, each view has its own upper and lower lethal temperature, the value of the temperature oppression and temperature optimum.

Organisms, the livelihoods and activity of which depend on external heat (microorganisms, mushrooms, plants, invertebrates, discovered, fish, amphibious, reptiles) are called causticothers. Among them there are sneatheterms (crofils - adapted with low low temperatures and thermophiles - adapted with small drops of high temperatures) and euriterama, which can exist with the limits of a large temperature amplitude. Adaptations to the transfer of low temperatures, allowing to regulate the metabolism for a long time, is carried out in organisms in two ways: a) the ability to biochemical and physiological rearrangements - the accumulation of antifreeze, which reduce the point of freezing of liquids in cells and tissues and therefore prevent ice formation; changing the set, concentration and activity of enzymes, change; b) Endurance to freezing (cold resistance) is a temporary cessation of an active state (hyobiosis or cryptobiosis) or accumulation of glycerol cells, sorbitol, mannitol, which prevent liquid crystallization.

Heuritem has a well developed ability to transition to a latent state with significant temperature deviations from the optimal value. After cold depression of organisms at a certain temperature, normal metabolism is restored, and this temperature value is called the temperature threshold of development, or biological zero of development.

At the heart of the seasonal rebuildings in the species - euryermov having widespread, lies acclimation (temperature optimum shift), when one genes are inactivated and the inclusion of others responsible for the replacement of alone enzymes. This phenomenon is detected in different parts of the range.

In plants, the metabolic heat is extremely negligible, so their existence is determined by the air temperature within the habitat. Plants adapt to the transfer of sufficiently large temperature fluctuations. The main thing is the transpiration, the cooling surface of the leaves during overheating; Reducing the sheet plate, sheet mobility, omitting, wax. To cold conditions of the plant adapt to the form of growth (dwarfishness, pillow-shaped growth, chopperiness), coloring. All this refers to physical thermoregulia. Physiological thermoregulation is the OPEAD of the foliage, the ignion of the ground part, the transfer of free water into the bound state, the accumulation of antifreeze, etc.).

Poikilotermic animals have the possibility of evaporative thermoregulation associated with their movement in space (amphibian, reptiles). They choose the most optimal conditions, produce a lot of internal (endogenous) heat in the process of cutting musculatures or muscle tremors (heated muscles during movement). Animals have behavioral adaptation (posture, shelter, holes, nests).

Homoiter animals (birds and mammals) have a permanent body temperature and do little depend on the ambient temperature. They are characterized by adaptation based on a sharp increase in oxidative processes as a result of the perfection of the nervous, blood, respiratory and other organ systems. They have biochemical thermoregulation (when the air temperature decreases the exchange of lipids; the oxidative processes are enhanced; there are oxidizing processes, especially in skeletal muscles; there is a specialized brown fatty tissue, in which all the released chemical energy goes to the formation of ATP, and on the heating of the body; increases the amount of food consumed) . But such thermoregulation has climatic restrictions (unprofitable in winter, in the polar conditions, in the summer in tropical and equatorial belts).

Physical thermoregulation (reflexion and expansion of blood vessels, thermal insulation effect of fur and feathers, countercurrent heat exchange), because It is carried out by maintaining heat in the body (Chernova, Wedov, 2004).

The behavioral thermoregulation of homootherms is characterized by a variety: a change in poses, searching for shelters, the construction of complex holes, nests, migration, group behavior, etc.

The most important environmental factor for organisms is light. The processes flowing under the action of light are photosynthesis (used 1-5% of the falling light), transpiration (75% of the incident light is used to be spent on evaporation of water), synchronization of vital activity, movement, vision, vitamin synthesis.

Plant morphology and the structure of plant communities are organized for the most effective perception of solar energy. The light-receiving surface of the plants of the globe is 4 times larger than the surface of the planet (Akimov, Khaskin, 2000). For living organisms, the wavelength is value, because The rays of different lengths have different biological significance: infrared radiation (780-400 nm) acts on the thermal centers of the nervous system, adjusting the oxidative processes, motor reactions, etc., ultraviolet rays (60-390 nm) acting on cover fabrics, contribute to the development of various vitamins, Stimulate the growth and reproduction of cells.

The visible light is of particular importance. For plants, the high-quality composition of the light is important. In the spectrum of rays, photosynthetic active radiation (headlights) is distinguished. The wavelength of this spectrum lies within 380 - 710 (370-720 nm).

The seasonal dynamics of illumination is associated with the patterns of astronomical nature, the seasonal climatic rhythm of the area and on different latitudes is expressed in different ways. For the lower tiers, the phenology state of vegetation is also imposed on these patterns. Of great importance is the daily rhythm of illumination changes. The course of radiation is violated by changes in the state of the atmosphere, cloudiness, etc. (Goryashin, 1979).

The plant is an opaque body that partially reflects the light, absorbs and misses. In the cells and tissues of the leaves there are various formations that provide absorption and transmission of light to increase the productivity of the plant increase the total area and the number of photosynthetic elements, which is achieved by a multi-storey location of the leaves on the plant; Mail location of plants in the community.

In relation to the power of lighting, three groups are distinguished: light-minded, tenetable, shapes, which are distinguished by anatomy-morphological adaptations (in light-loving plants leaves - smallest, movable, pubescent, have a wax flare, thick cuticle, crystalline shutdowns, etc. In the brass-leaves , chloroplasts are large and numerous); Physiological adaptations (different values \u200b\u200bof light compensation).

The reaction to the length of the light day (duration of lighting) is called photoperiodism. Plants have such important processes like flowering, the formation of seeds, growth, the transition to the rest state, the leaf fall is associated with seasonal changes in the length of the day and temperature. For the flowering of some plants, the length of the day is more than 14 hours, for others enough 7 hours, the third blooms, regardless of the length of the day.

For animal light information value. First of all, the daily activity of animals are divided into day, twilight, night. The body that helps to navigate the space is the eyes. In different organisms, different stereoscopic vision is a human total vision of 180 ° - stereoscopic-140 °, a rabbit is a total of 360 °, stereoscopic20 °. Binocular vision is mostly characteristic of predatory animals (feline and birds). In addition, the reaction to the light is determined by the phototaxis (movement to light),

reproduction, navigation (orienteering to the position of the Sun), biologinenagement. The light is a signal to attract individual sexes.

The most important environmental factor in the life of terrestrial organisms is water. It is necessary to maintain the structural integrity of cells, tissues, the whole organism, because It is the main part of the protoplasm of cells, tissues, plant and animal juices. Due to the water, biochemical reactions, the flow of nutrients, gas exchange, isolation, etc. The water content in the organism of plants and animals is quite high (in the leaves of herbs - 83-86%, the leaves of trees - 79-82%. Tree trunks 40-55%, In the bodies of insects - 46-92%, amphibians - up to 93%, mammals - 62-83%).

The existence in the ground-air environment puts an important problem of the conservation of water in the body. Therefore, the shape and functions of plants and animal sushi are adapted to protect against dried. In the life of plants it is important to enter water, holding it and transpiration, water balance, (Walter, 1031,1937, Schafer, 1956). The water balance changes are best reflecting the causing power of the roots.

The plant can suck water from the soil until the sucking force of the roots can compete with the sucking soil force. The strongly branched root system provides a large area of \u200b\u200bcontact absorbing part of the root with soil solutions. The overall length of the roots can reach 60 km. The sucking force of the roots varies depending on the weather, from environmental properties. The greater the suction surface of the roots, the more water absorbed.

By regulation of the water balance of the plant is divided into caustichydric (algae, mosses, ferns, some flowering) and homohydric (most of higher plants).

In relation to the water regime, environmental groups of plants are distinguished.

1. Gigrophites are ground plants living in wet habitats with high humidity and soil water supply. Characteristic signs of hygrophytes are thick underdeveloped roots, air cavities in the tissues, open dusts.

2. Mesophyte-plants of moderately moistened habitats. The ability to transfer soil and atmospheric drought is limited. May meet in arid habitats - quickly developing in a short period. A well-developed root system with numerous root hairs, transpiration intensity regulation.

3. Xerophytes - plants of dry habitats. These are drought-resistant plants, dry maker. Steppe xerophytes can lose without prejudice to 25% of water, deserted - up to 50% of water contained in them (for comparison, forest mesophytes are faded with a loss of 1% contained in the leaves of water). According to the nature of the anatomy-morphological and physiological adaptations, ensuring the active life of these plants in the deficiency of moisture, xerophytes are divided into succulents (have fleshy and juicy leaves and stems, capable of accumulating a large amount of water in the tissues, develop a small suspicious force and absorb atmospheric precipitation) and absorb Sclerophytes (dry on the type of plant, intensely evaporating moisture, have narrow and small leaves, which are sometimes folded into the tube, are able to withstand strong dehydration, the sucking the power of the roots can be up to several tens of atmospheres).

In different groups of animals in the process of adaptation to the conditions of ground-based existence, the main thing was to prevent water losses. Animals get water in different ways - through drink, with juicy food, as a result of metabolism (due to the oxidation and splitting of fats, proteins and carbohydrates). Some animals can absorb water through covers of a wet substrate or air. Water losses occur as a result of evaporation from covers, evaporation from the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, the separation of urine and undigested residues of food. Animals that get water through drink depend on the location of water bodies (large mammals, many birds).

An important factor for animals is the humidity of the air, because This indicator determines the magnitude of evaporation from the body surface. That is why for the water balance of the organism of animals, the structure of body cover is important. In the insects, a decrease in the evaporation of water from the body surface provides almost impenetrable cuticle and specialized allocation organs (Malpigayev tube), distinguishing the almost insoluble exchange product, and a breather, reduced water loss through the gas exchange system - through the trachea and tracheola.

Amphibians have the bulk of water in the body comes through the permeable skin. The permeability of the skin is regulated by the hormone, which is allocated by the rear lobe of the pituitary gland. Amphibians distinguish a very large amount of diluted urine, hypotonic with respect to body fluids. In the arid conditions of amphibians can reduce water loss with urine. In addition, these animals can accumulate water in the bladder and subcutaneous lymphatic spaces.

Reptiles have many adaptations of different levels - morphological (loss of water prevents damage), physiological (lungs located inside the body, which reduces water loss), biochemical (urinary acid is formed in tissues, which is removed without a large moisture loss, fabrics are capable of transferring the concentration salts by 50%).

In birds, the speed of evaporation is small (the skin is relatively impermeable for water, there are no sweat glands and feathers). Birds lose water (up to 35% of the body weight per day) when breathing due to high ventilation in the lungs and high body temperature. The birds have the process of reabsorption of water from part of water from urine and feces. Some seabirds (penguins, coolers, cormorants, albatrises) that feed on fish and drink sea water, there are salt glands located in the orders, with the help of which excess salts from the body are derived.

The mammals of the allocation and osmoregulation bodies serve as paired complex kidneys, which are supplied with blood and adjust the composition of the blood. This ensures the constant composition of intracellular and urban liquid. Relatively stable osmotic blood pressure is maintained due to the balance between the flow of water with drink and the loss of water with the exhaled air, then, highlighted by the feces and urine. Responsible for the subtle regulation of osmotic pressure is antidiuretic hormone (ADG), which is distinguished from the rear lobe of the pituitary gland.

Among the animals there are groups: hygrophils, in which the mechanisms of regulation of water exchange are weakly developed or in general (these are moisture-loving animals that need high humidity of the environment - chosen, loft, mosquitoes, other arthropods, terrestrial clams and amphibians); xerophiles having well-developed mechanisms for regulation of water exchange and adaptation to the holding of water in the body inhabitants in arid conditions; Mesophiles living in temperate humidity.

An indirectly active environmental factor in the ground-air environment is relief. All form of relief affects the spread of plants and animals through the change in the hydrothermal mode or soil-ground moistening.

In the mountains at different heights above sea level, climatic conditions are changed, the consequence of which is the altitude explanation. Geographical insulation in the mountains contributes to the formation of endemics, preserving relic species of plants and animals. River floodplains contribute to the north of more southern plants and animal groups. Of great importance is the exposure of the slopes, which creates the conditions for spreading to the north on the southern slopes of the thermal-loving communities, and on the northern slopes to the south of the cold-tech communities ("Rule presented", V.V. Alekhina).

The soil exists only in the ground-air environment and is formed as a result of the interaction of the age, mother breed, climate, relief, plants and animals, human activity. Environmental importance has a mechanical composition (mineral particle size), the chemical composition (pH of aqueous solution), soil salinization, soil wealth. Soil characteristics also act on living organisms as indirect factors, changing the thermo-hydrological regime, causing in plants (first) to adapt to the dynamics of these conditions and affects the spatial differentiation of organisms.

Layered structure of land shells and the composition of the atmosphere; Light mode as a factor of ground-air environment; adaptation of organisms to various light modes; temperature regime in ground-air environment, temperature adaptation; Pollution of the ground-air environment

The ground-air environment is the most difficult on environmental life conditions. Life on land demanded such morphological and biochemical devices, which were possible only at a fairly high level of organization of both plants and animals. In fig. 2 shows a scheme of land shells. The outdoor part can be attributed to the ground-frame environment. lithosphere and lower part atmosphere. The atmosphere, in turn, has a rather clearly pronounced layered structure. The lower layers of the atmosphere are displayed in Fig. 2. Since the bulk of living creatures lives in the troposphere, this particular layer of the atmosphere is included in the concept of ground-air environment. The troposphere is the lowest side of the atmosphere. Its height in different areas from 7 to 18 km, it contains the bulk of water vapor, which condensing, form clouds. In the troposphere, there is a powerful movement of air, and the temperature drops in 1 average by 0.6 ° C with a raising for every 100 m.

The atmosphere of the Earth consists of a mechanical mixture of gases, chemically not acting on each other. It happens all meteorological processes, the totality of which is called climate. The upper limit of the atmosphere is conditionally considered to be 2000 km, that is, its height is in 3 part of the land radius. The atmosphere continuously proceeds various physical processes: temperature, humidity changes, the condensation of water vapors occurs, fog, clouds, solar rays are heated by the atmosphere, ionizing it, etc.

The bulk of the air is concentrated in a layer of 70 km. Dry air contains (in%): nitrogen - 78.08; oxygen - 20.95; Argon - 0.93; Carbon dioxide - 0.03. The rest of the gases are very small. This is hydrogen, neon, helium, crypton, radon, xenon - most of the inert gases.

The air of the atmosphere is one of the main vital elements of the environment. It reliably protects the planet from harmful outer radiation. Under the influence of the atmosphere on Earth, the most important geological processes are performed, which ultimately form a landscape.

The atmospheric air refers to the category of inexhaustible resources, but the intensive development of industry, the growth of cities, the expansion of the research of outer space enhances the negative anthropogenic effect on the atmosphere. Therefore, the question of the protection of atmospheric air is becoming increasingly relevant.

In addition to the air of a certain composition, the living organisms inhabiting the ground-air medium, the pressure of air and humidity, as well as solar radiation and temperature are affected.

Fig. 2.

Light mode, or solar radiation. For the exercise of life processes, all living organisms require the energy coming from outside. Its main source is solar radiation.

The effect of different sections of the spectrum of solar radiation on living organisms is different. It is known that in the spectrum of sun rays allocate ultraviolet, apparently and infrared areas which, in turn, consist of light waves of different lengths (Fig. 3).

Among the ultraviolet rays (UFL) to the surface of the Earth, only long-wavelery (290-300 nm) reach, and shortwave (less than 290 nm), destructive for all living, are almost completely absorbed at an altitude of about 20-25 km by the ozone screen - a thin layer of the atmosphere containing Molecules 0 3 (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 3. The biological effect of different sections of the Solon Radiation Spectrum: 1 - Denaturation of the protein; 2 - the intensity of photosynthesis of wheat; 3 - Spectral sensitivity of a person's eye. Strong area of \u200b\u200bultraviolet radiation, not penetrating

through the atmosphere

Long-wave ultraviolet rays (300-400 nm), which have a high energy of photons, have high chemical and mutagenic activity. Big doses are harmful to organisms.

In the range of 250-300 nm UFLs, a powerful bactericidal effect is provided and cause animals the formation of anti-agacious vitamin D, i.e., in small doses of UFLs, a person and animals are needed. With a length of 300-400 nm UFL cause a tan in a person, which is a protective skin reaction.

Infrared rays (ion) with a wavelength of more than 750 nm have a thermal effect, are not perceived by the human eye and provide the thermal regime of the planet. These rays are especially important for cold-blooded animals (reptiles insects), which use them to increase body temperature (butterflies, lizards, snakes) or for hunting (ticks, spiders, snakes).

Currently, many devices are made, in which one part of the spectrum is used: ultraviolet irradiators, household appliances with infrared radiation for fast food, etc.

Visible rays with a wavelength of 400-750 nm are of great importance for all living organisms.

Light as a condition for the life of plants. Light absolutely needed plants. Green plants use solar energy in this area of \u200b\u200bthe spectrum, catching it in the process of photosynthesis:

Due to the varying need for light energy in plants, various morphological and physiological adaptation to the light habitat arise.

Adaptation is the system for regulating metabolic processes and physiological features that ensure maximum fitness of organisms to environmental conditions.

In accordance with the adaptation to the light regime, the plant is divided into the following ecological groups.

• 1. Svetiversy - having the following morphological adaptations: strong shoots with shortened interstices, rose-precision; The leaves are small or with a strongly dissected sheet plate, often with a wax chain or inwarding, often turned the edge to light (for example, acacia, mimosa, sofa, cornflower, nick, pine, tulip).
• 2. Teotelubile - constantly in conditions of strong shading. They have a dark green leaves, are horizontally. These are plants of the lower tiers of forests (for example, the pears, Niernik two-leaf, fern, etc.). With a lack of light, deep-water plants (red and brown algae) live.
• 3. Shadisy - can carry shading, but grow well in light (for example, forest grass and shrubs, growing and in shaded places, and on the edges, as well as oak, beech, ram, spruce).

In relation to the light of plants in the forest are located tiers. In addition, even the same tree, the leaves traveled in different ways depending on the tier. As a rule, they constitute leaf mosaic i.e. are located in such a way as to increase the leaf surface for better capture of light.

Light mode varies depending on the geographical latitude, time of day and season. In connection with the rotation of the Earth, the light regime has a distinct daily and seasonal rhythm. The reaction of the body to change the lighting mode is called photoperiodism.In connection with photoperiodism in the body, the metabolic processes, growth and development are changed.

Phenomenon is connected with photoperiodism phototropiscum - The movement of individual organs of the plant to light. For example, the movement of the basket of sunflower during the day after the sun, the disclosure of inflorescences at the dandelion and the basket in the morning and closing them in the evening, and vice versa - opening the color of the night violet and fragrant tobacco and closing them in the morning (daily photoperiodism).

Seasonal photoperiodism is observed in latitudes with the change of seasons (moderate and northern latitudes). With the onset of a long day (spring) in plants there is an active infection, the kidneys swell and reveal. At the occurrence of the autumn short day, the plants are discarded by foliage and preparing for the winter peace. It is necessary to distinguish the "short day" plants - they are distributed in subtropics (chrysanthemums, perilla, rice, soybean, blizzard, hemp); And the "Long Day" plants (Rudbeckia, cereals, cruciferous, dill) - they are common mainly in moderate and sugar latitudes. The "Long Day" plants cannot develop in the south (they do not give seeds), the same applies to the plants of a "short day", if they grow in the north.

Light as a living condition of animals. For animals, the light is not a factor of paramount importance, as for green plants, as they exist due to the energy of the Sun, accumulated by these plants. Nevertheless, animals need a light of a certain spectral composition. Basically, the light is necessary for the visual orientation in space. True, not all animals have eyes. Primitive is simply photosensitive cells or even a place in a cage (for example, stigma in single-cell organisms or "photosensitive eyes").

The shaped vision is possible only with a sufficiently complex eye device. For example, spiders can distinguish the contours of moving items only at a distance of 1-2 cm. The vertebrate eyes perceive the shape and dimensions of the items, their color and determine the distance to them.

Visible light is a conditional concept for different types of animals. For a person, it is rays from purple to dark red (remember the colors of the rainbow). Randing snakes, for example, perceive the infrared part of the spectrum. The bees differ in the multiweight of ultraviolet rays, but do not perceive red. The spectrum of visible light for them is shifted into the ultraviolet area.

The development of organs of vision largely depends on the environmental situation and the conditions of the habitat of organisms. So, at the permanent inhabitants of the caves, where sunlight does not penetrate, eyes can be completely or partially reduced: at blind bumps, bats, some amphibians and fish.

Color vision ability also depends on the day or night lifestyle lead organisms. Doggy, cat, hamsters (who eat, hunting at dusk) everyone sees in a black and white image. The same vision and night birds - owls, gootoev. Daytime birds have well-developed color vision.

In animals and birds also have adapts to the daily and night lifestyle. For example, most of the hoofs, bears, wolves, eagles, the larks are active in the afternoon, while tigers, mice, hedgehogs, owls, the greatest activity manifest night. The duration of the daylight affects the onset of the marriage period, migrations and flights in birds, hibernation in mammals, etc.

Animals are focused with the help of organs of vision during distant flights and migrations. Birds, for example, with amazing accuracy choose the direction of flight, overcoming many thousands of kilometers from the nests to the places of wintering. It has been proven that with such distant flights, the birds at least partially focus on the sun and the stars, i.e., astronomical light sources. They are capable of navigating, changing the orientation to get to the desired point of the Earth. If birds are transported in cells, they choose the right direction to wintering from anywhere in the ground. In a solid fog, the birds do not fly, as in the process of flight, they often come down from the way.

Among the insects, the ability to such orientation is developed at bees. As a guideline, they use the position (height) of the Sun.

Temperature regime in ground-air environment. Temperature adaptation. It is known that life is a way of existence of protein bodies, therefore the boundaries of the existence of life are temperatures under which the normal structure and functioning of proteins is possible, on average from 0 ° C to + 50 ° C. However, some organisms have specialized enzyme systems and are adapted to active existence at temperatures leaving for the indicated limits.

Species preferred (they are called cryophyms) can maintain cell activity to -8 ° ... -10 ° C. The supercooling is able to endure bacteria, mushrooms, lichens, mosses, arthropods. Our trees also do not die at low temperatures. It is only important that during the preparation for winter water in the plant cells passed into a special state, and not turned into ice - then the cells die. Plants overcome supercooling, accumulating in their cells and tissues of the substance - Osmotics-Protectors: various sugars, amino acids, alcohols, which "pump out" excessive water without letting it turn into ice.

There is a group of types of organisms, the optimum of which is high temperatures, they are called thermophiles. These are a variety of worms, insects, ticks living in deserts and hot semi-deserts, these are bacteria hot springs. There are sources with a temperature of + 70 ° C containing living inhabitants - blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), some types of mollusks.

If you take into account and latent (long -coming) forms of organisms, such as disputes of some bacteria, cysts, disputes and plant seeds, they can withstand significantly deviating from the temperature norm. Spores of bacteria can withstand heating to 180 ° C. Many seeds, pollen plants, cysts, single-cell algae withstand freezing in liquid nitrogen (at -195.8 ° C), and then long-term storage at -70 ° C. After defrosting and placing in favorable conditions and sufficient nutrient medium, these cells can become re-active and start multiplying.

Temporary suspension of all body life processes is called anabiosis. Anabiosis can occur in animals as with a decrease in the temperature of the medium, and when it is increased. For example, snakes and lizards, with an increase in air temperature above 45 ° C, thermal discharge occurs. Amphibians at water temperature below 4 ° С vital activity is practically absent. From the state of Anabiosis, living beings can return to normal life only if the structure of the macromolecules in their cells is not disturbed (primarily DNA and proteins).

Resistance to temperature fluctuations in the ground inhabitants is different.

Temperature adaptation in plants. Plants, being immobilely organisms, are forced to adapt to those temperature fluctuations that exist in their habitats. They have specific systems that are protected from supercooling or overheating. Transpiration - This is the water evaporation system by plants through the all-hand apparatus, which saves them from overheating. Some plants have acquired even resistance to fires - they are called pyroofites. Fires are often in savannah, shrub thickets. In the trees Savannan, the thick bark, impregnated with refractory substances. The fruits and seeds them have thick, weathered coverings that are cracking when they are covered with fire, which helps the seeds to get into the ground.

Temperature adaptation of animals. Animals, compared to plants, have great opportunities to adapt to temperature change, as they can move, have muscles and produce their own internal heat. Depending on the mechanisms for maintaining a constant body temperature distinguish poikilotermann (cold-blooded) and homoothermal (warm-blooded) animals.

Poikiloterman - These are insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles. Their body temperature varies together with the ambient temperature.

Homoothermal - animals with a constant body temperature capable of maintaining it even with strong oscillations of outdoor temperature (these are mammals and birds).

Main paths of temperature adaptations:

• 1) chemical thermoregulation - an increase in heat-product in response to a decrease in ambient temperature;
• 2) physical thermoregulation - the ability to keep heat due to hair and feather cover, distribution of fat stocks, possibilities of evaporative heat transfer, etc.;

3) behantic thermoregulation - The ability to move from the places of extreme temperatures to the places of optimal temperatures. This is the main path of thermoregulation in pykilotermic animals. With increasing or lowering the temperature, they seek to change the pose or hide in the shadow, in Noura. Bees, ants, termites build nests with a temperature-adjustable temperature.

The warm-blooded thermoregulation system has been significantly improved (although it is weak with young and chicks).

To illustrate the perfection of thermoregulation, the highest animals and humans can be given such an example. At about 200 years ago, Dr. Ch. Bigden in England put such an experience: he along with friends and a dog held 45 min in a dry chamber at + 126 ° C without health consequences. Lovers of the Finnish bath know what can be carried out in a sauna with a temperature of more than + 100 ° C for some time (for everyone - its own), and it is useful for health. But we also know that if you hold a piece of meat at such a temperature, it welds.

Under the action of cold, heat-oxidizing processes are intensified, especially in the muscles. Chemical thermoregulation comes into effect. Muscle tremor is noted, leading to the release of additional heat. The exchange of lipids is particularly intensified, since the fats contain a significant supply of chemical energy. Therefore, the accumulation of fat stocks provides better thermoregulation.

The enhanced production of heat-product is accompanied by consumption of a large number of food. So, the birds remaining for the winter need a lot of food, they are terrible not frost, but a nonsense. With a good yield, spruce and pines of chests, for example, even in winter pull out chicks. People are residents of harsh Siberian or Northern regions - from generation to generation high-calorie menu - traditional dumplings and other calorie foods were produced. Therefore, before follow fashionable Western diet and reject the food ancestors, it is necessary to recall the existing expediency in the nature underlying the perennial traditions of people.

The effective mechanism for regulating the heat exchange in animals, as in plants, is evaporation of water by sweating or through the mucous membranes of the mouth and the upper respiratory tract. This is an example of physical thermoregulation. A man with a strong heat can allocate up to 12 liters per day, dissipating the heat is 10 times more than the norm. The highlighted water is partially returned to drink.

Warm-blooded animals, as well as cold-blooded, behavioral thermoregulation. In the holes living under the land of animals fluctuations in temperatures, the less, the deeper the nonora. In skilfully built bees, a smooth, favorable microclimate is supported. Of particular interest is the group behavior of animals. For example, Penguins in a strong frost and a buran form a "turtle" - a dense bunch. Those who found themselves from the edge gradually make their way inside, where the temperature is maintained about + 37 ° C. In the same place, the youngsters are fitted inside.

Thus, in order to live and multiply under certain conditions of the ground-air environment, in animals and plants in the process of evolution, a wide variety of devices and systems of compliance of this habitat have been developed.

Pollution of the ground-air environment. Recently, an increasingly significant external factor changing the ground-air habitat becomes anthropogenic factor.

The atmosphere, like the biosphere, has the property of self-cleaning, or preservation of equilibrium. However, the volume and speed of modern atmospheric contaminants exceed the natural possibilities of their neutralization.

First, it is natural pollution - different dust: mineral (weathering and destruction of rocks), organic (airplane - bacteria, viruses, plants pollen) and cosmic (particles entering the atmosphere from space).

Secondly, these are artificial (anthropogenic) pollution - industrial, transport and household emissions to the atmosphere (dust of cement plants, soot, various gases, radioactive contamination, pesticides).

By approximate estimates, 1.5 million m of arsenic was thrown into the atmosphere over the past 100 years; 1 million tons of nickel; 1.35 million tons of silicon, 900 thousand tons of cobalt, 600 thousand tons of zinc, as many copper and other metals.

Chemical companies throw carbon dioxide, iron oxide, nitrogen oxides, chlorine. Phosphorganic compounds are particularly toxic from pesticides, of which there are even more toxic in the atmosphere.

As a result of emissions in the cities where ultraviolet radiation is reduced and there is a large accumulation of people, the air pool degradation occurs, one of whose manifestations is.

Conducted "classical" (mixture of toxic fogs arising from minor clouds) and " photochemical"(A mixture of caustic gases and aerosols, which is formed without fog as a result of photochemical reactions). The most dangerous London and Los Angeles could. It absorbs up to 25% of solar radiation and 80% of ultraviolet rays, the urban population suffers from this.

The ground-air environment is the most difficult to live organisms. Physical factors, its components are very diverse: light, temperature. But the organisms adapted during evolution to these changing factors and developed an adaptation system to ensure emergency fitness to habitat. Despite the inexhaustibility of air as an environment resource, its quality is rapidly deteriorating. Air pollution is the most dangerous form of environmental pollution.

Questions and tasks for self-control

• 1. Explain why the ground-air environment is the most difficult to live organisms.
• 2. Give examples of adaptations in plants and animals to high and low temperatures.
• 3. Why does the temperature have a strong impact on the vital activity of any organisms?
• 4. Analyze how light affects the vital activity of plants and animals.
• 5. Describe what photoperiodism is.
• 6. Prove that different waves of the light spectrum affect living organisms in different ways, bring examples. List to which groups are divided by living organisms according to the method of using energy, give examples.
• 7. Comment on which seasonal phenomena in nature are connected and how plants and animals react to them.
• 8. Explain why contamination of the ground-air environment is the greatest danger for living organisms.