Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, the following distinguishing features are usually indicated:
This is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;
This is a process aimed at searching for something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at promoting original ideas, to new coverage of the issues under consideration;
It is characterized by systematicity: here both the research process itself and its results are ordered, brought into the system;
It is characterized by strict evidence, consistent substantiation of the generalizations and conclusions made.
The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.
The goal, the immediate tasks of scientific and theoretical research, is to find common ground in a number of individual phenomena, to reveal the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, develop, i.e., to penetrate into their deep essence.
The main means of scientific and theoretical research:
A set of scientific methods that are comprehensively justified and consolidated into a single system;
A set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming the characteristic language of science.
results scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after their comprehensive evaluation, they are used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a withdrawn, generalized form, are included in the governing documents.
The activity of people in any of its forms (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process takes place, what methods, techniques, means are used in this case. This is the problem with the method.
Method (Greek - a way of knowing) - in the broadest sense of the word - "the path to something", a way of the subject's activity in any of its forms.
The concept of "methodology" has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.
The history and the current state of knowledge and practice convincingly show that not every method, not every system of principles and other means of activity provides a successful solution of theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the research, but also the path leading to it must be true.
The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) is reduced to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action.
It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide in solving a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular area of activity.
It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save time and effort, to move towards the goal in the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass, according to which the subject of knowledge and action paves its way, allows you to avoid mistakes.
F. Bacon compared the method with a lamp that illuminates the road in the dark, and believed that one cannot count on success in studying any issue by going the wrong way.
He considered induction as such a method, which requires science to proceed from empirical analysis, observation and experiment in order to learn the causes and laws on this basis.
G. Descartes called the method "exact and simple rules", the observance of which contributes to the increment of knowledge, allows you to distinguish the false from the true. He said that it is better not to think about finding any kind of truth than to do it without any method, especially without a deductive-rationalistic one.
Problems of method and methodologists occupy an important place in modern Western philosophy - especially in such areas and currents as the philosophy of science, positivism and postpositivism, structuralism and post-structuralism, analytical philosophy, hermeneutics, phenomenology and others.
Each method will be ineffective and even useless if it is used not as a "guiding thread" in scientific or other form of activity, but as a ready-made template for reshaping the facts.
The main purpose of any method is, on the basis of relevant principles (requirements, prescriptions, etc.), to ensure the successful solution of certain cognitive and practical problems, the increment of knowledge, the optimal functioning and development of certain objects.
It should be borne in mind that the questions of method and methodology cannot be limited only by philosophical or internal scientific frameworks, but must be posed in a broad sociocultural context.
This means that it is necessary to take into account the connection between science and production at this stage. social development, the interaction of science with other forms of social consciousness, the ratio of methodological and value aspects, the "personal characteristics" of the subject of activity and many other social factors.
The application of methods can be spontaneous and conscious. It is clear that only the conscious application of methods, based on an understanding of their capabilities and limits, makes people's activities, other things being equal, more rational and efficient.
Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods, means and techniques that were discovered in philosophy, science and other forms of human activity. Historically, initially the problems of methodology were developed within the framework of philosophy: the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of F. Bacon, the rationalistic method of G. Descartes, the dialectical method of G. Hegel and K. Marx, the phenomenological method of E. Husserl. Therefore, methodology is closely connected with philosophy - especially with such sections of it as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics.
Methodology in a certain sense is "wider" than dialectics, since it studies not only the general, but also other levels of methodological knowledge, as well as their interconnection, modifications, etc.
The close connection between methodology and dialectics does not mean that these concepts are identical and that materialist dialectics acts as a philosophical methodology of science. Materialistic dialectics is one of the forms of dialectics, and the latter is one of the elements of philosophical methodology, along with metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.
Methodology in a certain sense is “narrower” than the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the possibilities and limits of knowledge, the criteria for its truth, etc. On the other hand, methodology is "wider" than epistemology, since it is interested not only in methods of cognition, but also in all other forms. human activity.
The logical study of science is the means of modern formal logic that are used to analyze scientific language, identifying the logical structure of scientific theories and their components (definitions, classifications, concepts, laws, etc.), studying the possibilities and completeness of the formalization of scientific knowledge.
Traditional logical means were applied mainly to the analysis of the structure of scientific knowledge, then the center of methodological interests shifted to the problems of growth, change and development of knowledge.
This change in methodological interests can be viewed from the following two angles.
The task of the logic of time is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages that can make more clear and accurate, and therefore more fruitful reasoning about objects and phenomena that exist in time.
The task of the logic of change is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages that can make more clear and accurate reasoning about changing an object - its transition from one state to another, about the formation of an object, its formation.
At the same time, it should be said that the really great achievements of formal logic gave rise to the illusion that only its methods can solve all the methodological problems of science without exception. For a particularly long time, this illusion was supported by logical positivism, the collapse of which showed the limitedness, one-sidedness of such an approach - for all its importance "within its competence."
Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thus acts as its necessary prerequisite.
Efficiency, strength of this or that method is due to the content, depth, fundamental nature of the theory, which is "compressed into a method."
In turn, the "method expands into a system", that is, it is used for the further development of science, the deepening and deployment of theoretical knowledge as a system, its materialization, objectification in practice.
Thus theory and method are both identical and different. their similarity lies in the fact that they are interconnected and in their unity reflect reality.
Being united in their interaction, theory and method are not rigidly separated from each other and at the same time are not directly one and the same.
They mutually transition, mutually transform: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed, transformed into a method through the development, formulation of principles, rules, techniques arising from it, which return to theory (and through it to practice), because the subject uses them as regulators, prescriptions, in the course of knowledge and change of the surrounding world according to its own laws.
Therefore, the assertion that the method is a theory addressed to the practice of scientific research is not accurate, because the method is also addressed to practice itself as a sensory-objective, socially transforming activity.
The development of theory and the improvement of methods for researching and transforming reality are, in fact, one and the same process with these two inextricably linked sides. Not only is theory summarized in methods, but methods are also developed into theory and have a significant influence on its formation and on the course of practice.
The main differences between theory and method are as follows:
a) theory is the result of previous activity, method is the starting point and premise of subsequent activity;
b) the main functions of the theory are explanation and prediction (in order to search for truth, laws, causes, etc.), method - regulation and orientation of activity;
c) theory - a system of ideal images that reflect the essence, patterns of an object, method - a system of regulators, rules, prescriptions, acting as a tool for further knowledge and change of reality;
d) the theory is aimed at solving the problem - what is a given subject, method - at identifying ways and mechanisms of its study and transformation.
Thus theories, laws, categories, and other abstractions do not yet constitute a method. In order to perform a methodological function, they must be appropriately transformed, transformed from the explanatory provisions of the theory into the orientation-active, regulatory principles (requirements, prescriptions, settings) of the method.
Any method is determined not only by the previous ones and share two other methods simultaneously with it, and not only by the theory on which it is based.
Each method is conditioned, first of all, by its subject, i.e., by what is being studied (individual objects or their classes).
The method as a method of research and other activities cannot remain unchanged, always equal to itself in all respects, but must change in its content along with the subject to which it is directed. This means that not only the end result of cognition must be true, but also the path leading to it, i.e., the method that comprehends and retains precisely the specifics of a given subject.
A method of any level of generality has not only a purely theoretical but also a practical character: it arises from a real life process and again goes into it.
It should be borne in mind that in modern science the concept of "object of knowledge" is used in two main meanings.
Firstly, as a subject area - sides, properties, relations of reality, which have relative completeness, integrity and oppose the subject in his activity (the object of knowledge). For example, a subject area in zoology is a set of animals. Different sciences about the same object have different subjects of knowledge (for example, anatomy studies the structure of organisms, physiology studies the functions of its organs, etc.).
The objects of knowledge can be both material and ideal.
Secondly, as a system of laws to which this object is subject. It is impossible to separate the object and the method, to see in the latter only an external means in relation to the object.
The method is not imposed on the subject of knowledge or action, but changes in accordance with their specificity. Research involves a thorough knowledge of the facts and other data relevant to its subject. It is carried out as a movement in a certain material, the study of its features, connections, relationships.
The way of movement (method) consists in the fact that the research must get used to the specific material (factual and conceptual) in detail, analyze various forms its development, trace their internal connection.
The variety of human activities causes a diverse range of methods that can be classified according to a variety of criteria.
First of all, it is necessary to single out the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of practical, material activity.
At present, it has become obvious that the system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond it and certainly include the sphere of practice in its orbit. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.
As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for their division into groups. So, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can single out formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation.
The content of the objects studied by science serves as a criterion for distinguishing between the methods of natural science and the methods of social sciences and the humanities. In turn, the methods of the natural sciences can be subdivided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for studying living nature. There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative.
To the number characteristic features scientific method most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, specificity, etc.
In modern science, the multilevel concept of methodological knowledge works quite successfully. In this regard, all methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into the following main groups.
1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. In essence, each philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. They also include such methods as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.
2. General scientific approaches and research methods that have been widely developed and applied in science. They act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.
General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability.
On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.
General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.
Such a general scientific discipline as synergetics, the theory of self-organization and development of open integral systems of any nature, natural, social, cognitive, has been developing especially rapidly recently.
Among the basic concepts of synergetics are such as order, chaos, non-linearity, uncertainty, instability.
Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as being, development, becoming, time, whole, chance, possibility.
3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of cognition, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science, corresponding to a given basic form of matter movement. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences and humanities.
4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that has arisen at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.
5. Methods of interdisciplinary research - a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods, aimed mainly at the junctions of scientific disciplines. These methods are widely used in the implementation of complex scientific programs.
Thus, the methodology cannot be reduced to any one, even a very important method.
Methodology is also not a simple sum of individual methods, their mechanical unity. Methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, direction, heuristic possibilities, contents, structures.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The concept of method and methodology
Scientific activity, like any other, is carried out with the help of certain means, as well as special tricks and ways, i.e. methods, the correct use of which largely determines the success in the implementation of the research task.
Method - it is a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality. The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object.
At the level of everyday practical activity, the method is formed spontaneously and only later is it realized by people. In the field of science, the method is formed consciously and purposefully.The scientific method corresponds to its status only when it provides an adequate display of the properties and patterns of objects in the external world.
scientific method is a system of rules and techniques by which objective knowledge of reality is achieved.
The scientific method has the following signs:
1) clarity or public availability;
2) lack of spontaneity in application;
4) fruitfulness or the ability to achieve not only the intended, but no less significant side results;
5) reliability or the ability to provide the desired result with a high degree of certainty;
6) economy or the ability to produce results with the least cost and time.
The nature of the method is essentially determined by:
The subject of the study;
The degree of generality of the tasks;
accumulated experience and other factors.
Methods that are suitable for one area of scientific research are unsuitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, we are witnessing many outstanding achievements as a consequence of the transfer of methods that have proven themselves in some sciences to other sciences to solve their specific problems. Thus, opposite tendencies of differentiation and integration of sciences on the basis of applied methods are observed.
Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which, therefore, is its premise. The effectiveness and strength of a particular method is due to the content and depth of the theory on the basis of which it is formed. In turn, the method is used to deepen and expand theoretical knowledge as a system. Thus, theory and method are closely interconnected: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed into a method through the development of rules, techniques, operations arising from it - methods contribute to the formation, development, refinement of the theory, its practical verification.
The scientific method contains a number of aspects:
1) objectively meaningful (expresses the conditionality of the method by the subject of knowledge through theory);
2) operational (fixes the dependence of the content of the method not so much on the object as on the subject of cognition, his competence and ability to translate the relevant theory into a system of rules, techniques that together make up the method);
3) praxeological (properties of reliability, efficiency, clarity).
The main functions of the method:
Integrative;
epistemological;
Systematizing.
Rules are central to the structure of a method. rule It is a prescription that establishes a procedure for achieving a certain goal. A rule is a provision that reflects a pattern in a certain subject area. This pattern creates basic knowledge regulations. In addition, the rule includes some system of operational rules that ensure the connection of means and conditions with human activity. In addition, the structure of the method includes some tricks carried out on the basis of operational norms.
The concept of methodology.
In the most general sense, methodology is understood as a system of methods used in a certain field of activity. But in the context of philosophical research, methodology is, first of all, the doctrine of the methods of scientific activity, the general theory of the scientific method. Its tasks are to study the possibilities and prospects for the development of appropriate methods in the course of scientific knowledge. The methodology of science seeks to streamline, systematize methods, to establish the suitability of their application in various fields.
Methodology of Scienceis a theory of scientific knowledge, exploring the cognitive processes occurring in science, the forms and methods of scientific knowledge. In this sense, it acts as metascientific knowledge of a philosophical nature.
Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods that arose in philosophy and science. Historically, initially the problems of the methodology of science were developed within the framework of philosophy (the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of Bacon, the dialectical method of Hegel, the phenomenological method of Husserl, etc.). Therefore, the methodology of science is very closely connected with philosophy, especially with such a discipline as the theory of knowledge.
In addition, the methodology of science is closely related to such a discipline as the logic of science, which has developed since the second half of the 19th century. The logic of science is a discipline that applies the concepts and technical apparatus of modern logic to the analysis of systems of scientific knowledge.
The main problems of the logic of science:
1) the study of the logical structures of scientific theories;
2) study of construction artificial languages Sciences;
3) the study of various types of deductive and inductive conclusions used in the natural, social and technical sciences;
4) analysis of formal structures of fundamental and derivative scientific concepts and definitions;
5) consideration and improvement of the logical structure of research procedures and operations and the development of logical criteria for their heuristic efficiency.
Starting from the 17th-18th centuries. methodological ideas are developed within the framework of particular sciences. Each science has its own methodological arsenal.
In the system of methodological knowledge, the main groups can be distinguished, taking into account the degree of generality and breadth of application of the individual methods included in them. These include:
1) philosophical methods (set the most general regulators of research - dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, hermeneutical, etc.);
2) general scientific methods (characteristic of a number of branches of scientific knowledge; they do not depend much on the specifics of the object of study and the type of problems, but at the same time they depend on the level and depth of the study);
3) private scientific methods (used within certain special scientific disciplines; a distinctive feature of these methods is their dependence on the nature of the object of study and the specifics of the tasks being solved).
In this regard, within the framework of the methodology of science, there are distinguished philosophical and methodological analysis of science, general scientific and particular scientific methodology.
Specificity of philosophical and methodological analysis of science
Essentially, every philosophical system has a methodological function. Examples: dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, analytic, hermeneutical, etc.
The specificity of philosophical methods lies in the fact that this is not a set of rigidly fixed regulators, but a system of rules, operations, and techniques that are universal and universal in nature. Philosophical methods are not described in strict terms of logic and experiment, they are not amenable to formalization and mathematization. They set only the most general regulations of research, its general strategy, but do not replace special methods and do not determine the final result of cognition directly and directly. Figuratively speaking, philosophy is a compass that helps to determine the right path, but not a map on which the path to the final goal is pre-drawn.
Philosophical methods play a large role in scientific knowledge, setting a predetermined view of the essence of an object. Here all other methodological guidelines originate, critical situations in the development of one or another fundamental discipline are comprehended.
The totality of philosophical regulations acts as an effective means if it is mediated by other, more specific methods. It is absurd to assert that, as if knowing only the principles of dialectics, it is possible to create new types of machines. The philosophical method is not a "universal master key", it is impossible to directly obtain answers to certain problems of particular sciences from it by simply logical development general truths. It cannot be an "algorithm of discovery", but gives the scientist only the most general orientation of research. As an example, the application of the dialectical method in science - scientists are not interested in the categories "development", "causality", etc., but in the regulatory principles formulated on their basis and how they can help in real scientific research.
The impact of philosophical methods on the process of scientific knowledge is always carried out not directly and directly, but in a complex, indirect way. Philosophical regulations are translated into scientific research through general scientific and specific scientific regulations. Philosophical methods do not always make themselves felt in the process of research in an explicit form. They can be taken into account and applied either spontaneously or consciously. But in any science there are elements of universal significance (laws, principles, concepts, categories), where philosophy is manifested.
General scientific and private scientific methodology.
General scientific methodologyis a body of knowledge about the principles and methods applied in any scientific discipline. It acts as a kind of "intermediate methodology" between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts include such concepts as “system”, “structure”, “element”, “function”, etc. On the basis of general scientific concepts and categories, the corresponding methods of cognition are formulated, which ensure the optimal interaction of philosophy with concrete scientific knowledge and its methods.
General scientific methods are divided into:
1) general logical, applied in any act of cognition and at any level. These are analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, generalization, analogy, abstraction;
2) methods of empirical research applied at the empirical level of research (observation, experiment, description, measurement, comparison);
3) theoretical research methods used at the theoretical level of research (idealization, formalization, axiomatic, hypothetical-deductive, etc.);
4) methods of systematization of scientific knowledge (typology, classification).
Characteristic features of general scientific concepts and methods:
The combination in their content of elements of philosophical categories and concepts of a number of particular sciences;
Possibility of formalization and refinement by mathematical means.
At the level of general scientific methodology, a general scientific picture of the world is formed.
Private scientific methodologyis a body of knowledge about the principles and methods used in a particular scientific discipline. Within its framework, special scientific pictures of the world are formed. Each science has its own specific set of methodological tools. At the same time, the methods of some sciences can be translated into other sciences. Interdisciplinary scientific methods are emerging.
Scientific research methodology.
The main attention within the framework of the methodology of science is directed to scientific research as an activity in which the application of various scientific methods is embodied.Scientific research- activity aimed at obtaining true knowledge about objective reality.
Knowledge applied at the subject-sensory level of some scientific research forms the basis of its methods . In an empirical study, the methodology provides for the collection and primary processing of experimental data, regulates the practice of research work - experimental production activities. Theoretical work also requires its own methodology. Here its prescriptions refer to activities with objects expressed in sign form. For example, there are methods of various kinds of calculations, deciphering texts, conducting mental experiments, etc.At the present stage of the development of science, both at its empirical andand at the theoretical level, computer technology plays an extremely important role. Without it, a modern experiment, simulation of situations, various computational procedures are inconceivable.
Any technique is created on the basis of higher levels of knowledge, but it is a set of highly specialized installations, which includes rather strict restrictions - instructions, projects, standards, specifications, etc. At the level of methodology, the installations that exist ideally in human thoughts, as it were, merge with practical operations, completing the formation of the method. Without them, the method is something speculative and does not get access to the outside world. In turn, the practice of research is impossible without control from the side of ideal settings. Good command of the methodology is an indicator of the high professionalism of a scientist.
Research structure
Scientific research contains a number of elements in its structure.
Object of study- a fragment of reality, to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed, and which exists outside and independently of the consciousness of the cognizing subject. The objects of study can be both material and non-material in nature. Their independence from consciousness lies in the fact that they exist regardless of whether people know or do not know anything about them.
Subject of studyis a part of the object directly involved in the study; these are the main, most significant features of the object from the point of view of a particular study. The specificity of the subject of scientific research lies in the fact that at first it is set in general, indefinite terms, it is anticipated and predicted to a small extent. Finally, it "looms" at the end of the study. When approaching it, the scientist cannot imagine it indrawings and calculations. What needs to be "pulled out" from the object and synthesized in the research product - the researcher has a superficial, one-sided, not exhaustive knowledge about this. Therefore, the form of fixing the subject of research is a question, a problem.
Gradually transforming into a product of research, the subject is enriched and developed at the expense of initially unknown signs and conditions of its existence. Outwardly, this is expressed in a change in questions that additionally arise before the researcher, are consistently resolved by him and are subordinate to the general goal of the study.
We can say that individual scientific disciplines are busy studying individual “sections” of the objects under study. The variety of possible "sections" of the study of objects gives rise to the multi-subject nature of scientific knowledge. Each of the subjects creates its own conceptual apparatus, its own specific research methods, its own language.
Purpose of the study - an ideal, mental anticipation of the result, for the sake of which scientific and cognitive actions are taken.
Features of the subject of research directly affect its purpose. The latter, includingthe image of the subject of research, is characterized by the uncertainty inherent in the subject at the beginning of the research process. It is concretized as it approaches the final result.
Research objectivesformulate questions that must be answered in order to achieve the objectives of the study.
The goals and objectives of the study form interrelated chains, in which each link serves as a means of holding other links. The ultimate goal of the study can be called its general task, and the particular tasks that act as means of solving the main one can be called intermediate goals, or goals of the second order.
The main and additional tasks of the study are also distinguished: The main tasks correspond to its target setting, additional ones are set to prepare future studies, test side (possibly very relevant) hypotheses that are not related to this problem, to solve some methodological issues, etc. .
Ways to achieve the goal:
If the main goal is formulated as theoretical, then when developing the program, the main attention is paid to the study of scientific literature on this issue, a clear interpretation of the initial concepts, the construction of a hypothetical general concept of the subject of research, the identification of a scientific problem and the logical analysis of working hypotheses.
A different logic governs the actions of the researcher if he sets himself a direct practical goal. He begins work, based on the specifics of this object and understanding practical tasks to be resolved. Only after that does he turn to the literature in search of an answer to the question: is there a "typical" solution of the problems that have arisen, i.e., a special theory related to the subject? If there is no "standard" solution, further work is deployed according to the scheme of theoretical research. If such a solution is available, the hypotheses of applied research are constructed as different versions of "reading" typical solutions in relation to specific conditions.
It is very important to keep in mind that any research focused on solving theoretical problems can be continued as applied research. At the first stage, we get some typical solution to the problem, and then translate it into specific conditions.
Also an element of the structure of scientific research aremeans of scientific cognitive activity . These include:
Material resources;
Theoretical objects (ideal constructs);
Research methods and other ideal regulators of research: norms, samples, ideals of scientific activity.
The means of scientific search are in constant change and development. The fact that some of them are successfully applied at one stage in the development of science is not a sufficient guarantee of their agreement with new realms of reality and therefore require improvement or replacement.
System approach as a general scientific methodological program and its essence.
Working with complex research problems involves the use of not only various methods, but also various strategies of scientific research. The most important of them, playing the role of a general scientific methodological program of scientific knowledge, is systems approach. Systems approachis a set of general scientific methodological principles, which are based on the consideration of objects as systems. System - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming something whole.
Philosophical aspects of the systemic approach are expressed in the principle of systemicity, the content of which is revealed in the concepts of integrity, structure, interdependence of the system and environment, hierarchy, multiplicity of descriptions of each system.
The concept of integrity reflects the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements and the non-derivation from the properties of parts of the properties of the whole and, at the same time, the dependence of each element, property and relationship of the system on its place and functions within the whole.
The concept of structurality fixes the fact that the behavior of a system is determined not so much by the behavior of its individual elements as by the properties of its structure, and that it is possible to describe the system by establishing its structure.
The interdependence of the system and the environment means that the system forms and manifests its properties in constant interaction with the environment, while remaining the leading active ingredient interactions.
The concept of hierarchy focuses on the fact that each element of the system can be considered as a system, and the system under study in this case is one of the elements of a wider system.
The possibility of multiple descriptions of the system exists due to the fundamental complexity of each system, as a result of which its adequate knowledge requires the construction of many different models, each of which describes only a certain aspect of the system.
The specificity of the system approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the study on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that ensure it, on identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them into a single theoretical system. The widespread use of a systematic approach in modern research practice is due to a number of circumstances and, above all, the intensive development of complex objects in modern scientific knowledge, the composition, configuration and functioning principles of which are far from obvious and require special analysis.
One of the most striking embodiments of the systems methodology issystem analysis, which is a special branch of applied knowledge applicable to systems of any nature.
Recently, there has been a formation of a non-linear methodology of cognition associated with the development of interdisciplinary scientific concepts - the dynamics of non-equilibrium states and synergetics. Within the framework of these concepts, new guidelines for cognitive activity are formed, setting the consideration of the object under study as a complex self-organizing and thus historically self-developing system.
With a systematic approach as a general scientific methodological program is also closely relatedstructural-functional approach, which is its variety. It is built on the basis of identifying their structure in integral systems - a set of stable relationships and relationships between its elements and their roles (functions) relative to each other.
The structure is understood as something unchanged under certain transformations, and the function as the purpose of each of the elements of this system.
The main requirements of the structural-functional approach:
Study of the structure, structure of the object under study;
Study of its elements and their functional characteristics;
Consideration of the history of the functioning and development of the object as a whole.
Landmarks of cognitive activity, concentrated in the content of general scientific methods, are deployed, systematically organized complexes that differ complex structure. In addition, the methods themselves are in complex connection together. In the real practice of scientific research, methods of cognition are applied in combination, setting a strategy for solving the tasks. At the same time, the specificity of any of the methods allows for a meaningful consideration of each of them separately, taking into account belonging to a certain level of scientific research.
General logical methods of scientific research.
Analysis - dismemberment of a holistic subject into its constituent parts (features, properties, relationships) with the aim of their comprehensive study.
Synthesis - connection of previously distinguished parts (sides, features, properties, relations) of an object into a single whole.
abstraction- a mental distraction from a number of features, properties and relations of the object under study, while simultaneously highlighting for consideration those of them that interest the researcher. As a result, "abstract objects" appear, which are both individual concepts and categories, and their systems.
Generalization – establishment of common properties and features of objects. General - a philosophical category that reflects similar, recurring features, features that belong to single phenomena or all objects of a given class. There are two general types:
Abstract-general (simple sameness, external similarity, similarity of a number of single objects);
Concrete-general (internal, deep, repeating basis for a group of similar phenomena - essence).
Accordingly, there are two types of generalizations:
Identification of any signs and properties of objects;
Identification of essential features and properties of objects.
On another basis, generalizations are divided into:
Inductive (from individual facts and events to their expression in thoughts);
Logical (from one thought to another, more general).
Method opposite to generalization − limitation (transition from a more general concept to a less general one).
Induction - a research method in which the general conclusion is based on private premises.
Deduction - a method of research by means of which a conclusion of a particular nature follows from general premises.
Analogy - a method of cognition in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some features, they conclude that they are similar in other features.
Modeling - the study of an object by creating and studying its copy (model), replacing the original from certain aspects of interest to knowledge.
Methods of empirical research
At the empirical level, methods such asobservation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment.
Observation - this is a systematic and purposeful perception of phenomena, during which we gain knowledge about the external aspects, properties and relationships of the objects under study. Observation is always not contemplative, but active, active. It is subordinated to the solution of a specific scientific problem and therefore is distinguished by purposefulness, selectivity and systematic character.
Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design, availability of strictly defined means (in technical sciences - instruments), objectivity of results. Objectivity is ensured by the possibility of control through either repeated observation or the use of other research methods, in particular, experiment. Usually, observation is included as an integral part of the experimental procedure. An important point of observation is the interpretation of its results - decoding of instrument readings, etc.
Scientific observation is always mediated by theoretical knowledge, since it is the latter that determines the object and subject of observation, the purpose of observation and the method of its implementation. In the course of observation, the researcher is always guided by a certain idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not just register any facts, but consciously selects those of them that either confirm or refute his ideas. It is very important to select the most representative group of facts in their relationship. The interpretation of an observation is also always carried out with the help of certain theoretical propositions.
The implementation of advanced forms of observation involves the use of special means - and primarily devices, the development and implementation of which also requires the involvement of theoretical concepts of science. In the social sciences, the form of observation is questioning; for the formation of survey tools (questionnaires, interviews) also requires special theoretical knowledge.
Description - fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of the results of an experiment (observation or experiment data) using certain notation systems adopted in science (diagrams, graphs, drawings, tables, diagrams, etc.).
In the course of the description, comparison and measurement of phenomena is carried out.
Comparison - a method that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. But this method makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, signs compared according to one sign may be incomparable according to another.
Measurement - a research method in which the ratio of one value to another, which serves as a standard, is established. Most wide application measurement finds in the natural and technical sciences, but from the 20-30s of the XX century. it comes into use in social research as well. Measurement implies the presence of: an object on which some operation is performed; properties of this object, which can be perceived, and the value of which is set using this operation; tool through which this operation is performed. The general goal of any measurement is to obtain numerical data that make it possible to judge not so much the quality as the quantity of certain states. In this case, the value of the obtained value should be so close to the true one that for this purpose it can be used instead of the true one. Errors in the measurement results (systematic and random) are possible.
There are direct and indirect measurement procedures. The latter include measurements of objects that are remote from us or are not directly perceived. The value of the measured quantity is set indirectly. Indirect measurements are feasible when the general relationship between the quantities is known, which makes it possible to derive the desired result from already known quantities.
Experiment - a method of research, with the help of which there is an active and purposeful perception of a certain object in controlled and controlled conditions.
The main features of the experiment:
1) an active relationship to the object up to its change and transformation;
2) multiple reproducibility of the object under study at the request of the researcher;
3) the possibility of detecting such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;
4) the possibility of considering the phenomenon "in pure form» by isolating it from external influences, or by changing the conditions of the experiment;
5) the ability to control the "behavior" of the object and check the results.
We can say that the experiment is an idealized experience. It makes it possible to follow the course of a change in a phenomenon, to actively influence it, to recreate it, if necessary, before comparing the results obtained. Therefore, experiment is a stronger and more effective method than observation or measurement, where the phenomenon under study remains unchanged. This is the highest form of empirical research.
An experiment is used either to create a situation that allows one to study an object in its pure form, or to test existing hypotheses and theories, or to formulate new hypotheses and theoretical ideas. Any experiment is always guided by some theoretical idea, concept, hypothesis. Experimental data, as well as observations, are always theoretically loaded - from its formulation to the interpretation of the results.
Stages of the experiment:
1) planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, etc.);
2) control;
3) interpretation of the results.
Experiment structure:
1) the object of study;
2) creation of the necessary conditions (material factors of influence on the object of study, elimination of undesirable effects - interference);
3) methodology for conducting the experiment;
4) the hypothesis or theory to be tested.
As a rule, experimentation is associated with the use of simpler practical methods - observations, comparisons and measurements. Since the experiment is not carried out, as a rule, without observations and measurements, it must meet their methodological requirements. In particular, as with observations and measurements, an experiment can be considered conclusive if it can be reproduced by any other person in another place in space and at another time and gives the same result.
Types of experiment:
Depending on the objectives of the experiment, research experiments are distinguished (the task is the formation of new scientific theories), testing experiments (testing existing hypotheses and theories), decisive experiments (confirmation of one and refutation of another of the competing theories).
Depending on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, social, and other experiments are distinguished.
There are also qualitative experiments aimed at establishing the presence or absence of the alleged phenomenon, and measurement experiments that reveal the quantitative certainty of some property.
Methods of theoretical research.
At the theoretical stage,thought experiment, idealization, formalization,axiomatic, hypothetical-deductive methods, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, as well as methods of historical and logical analysis.
Idealization - a research method consisting in the mental construction of an idea about an object by eliminating the conditions necessary for its real existence. In fact, idealization is a kind of abstraction procedure, specified taking into account the needs of theoretical research. The results of such construction are idealized objects.
The formation of idealizations can go in different ways:
Consistently carried out multi-stage abstraction (thus, objects of mathematics are obtained - a plane, a straight line, a point, etc.);
Isolation and fixation of a certain property of the object under study in isolation from all others (ideal objects of the natural sciences).
Idealized objects are much simpler than real objects, which makes it possible to apply mathematical methods of description to them. Thanks to idealization, processes are considered in their purest form, without accidental additions from outside, which opens the way to revealing the laws by which these processes proceed. An idealized object, in contrast to a real one, is characterized not by an infinite, but by a quite definite number of properties, and therefore the researcher gets the possibility of complete intellectual control over it. Idealized objects model the most essential relationships in real objects.
Since the provisions of the theory speak about the properties of ideal, and not real, objects, there is a problem of verifying and accepting these provisions on the basis of correlation with the real world. Therefore, in order to take into account the introduced circumstances that affect the deviation of indicators inherent in empirical givenness from the characteristics of an ideal object, the rules of concretization are formulated: verification of the law, taking into account the specific conditions of its operation.
Modeling (a method closely related to idealization) is a method for studying theoretical models, i.e. analogues (schemes, structures, sign systems) of certain fragments of reality, which are called originals. The researcher, transforming these analogues and managing them, expands and deepens knowledge about the originals. Modeling is a method of indirect operation of an object, during which not the object of interest to us is directly investigated, but some intermediate system (natural or artificial), which:
It is in some objective correspondence with the cognized object (the model is, first of all, what it is compared with - it is necessary that there is a similarity between the model and the original in some physical characteristics, or in structure, or in functions);
In the course of cognition, at certain stages, it is capable of replacing the object under study in certain cases (in the process of research, temporary replacement of the original with a model and work with it allows in many cases not only to detect, but also to predict its new properties);
To give information about the object of interest to us in the process of its study.
The logical basis of the modeling method is conclusions by analogy.
Exists different kinds modeling. Main:
Subject (direct) - modeling, during which the study is carried out on a model that reproduces certain physical, geometric, etc. characteristics of the original. Object modeling is used as a practical method of knowledge.
Sign modeling (models are diagrams, drawings, formulas, natural or artificial language sentences, etc.). Since actions with signs are at the same time actions with some thoughts, insofar as any sign modeling is inherently a mental modeling.
In historical studies, reflective-measuring models ("as it was") and simulation-prognostic ones ("how could it be") are distinguished.
thought experiment- a research method based on a combination of images, the material implementation of which is impossible. This method is formed on the basis of idealization and modeling. The model then turns out to be an imaginary object, transformed in accordance with the rules suitable for a given situation. States inaccessible to a practical experiment are revealed with the help of its continuation - a thought experiment.
As an illustration, we can take the model built by K. Marx, which allowed him to thoroughly explore the capitalist mode of production in the mid-nineteenth century. The construction of this model was associated with a number of idealizing assumptions. In particular, it was assumed that there is no monopoly in the economy; all regulations that prevent the movement of labor from one place or from one sphere of production to another have been abolished; labor in all spheres of production is reduced to simple labor; the rate of surplus-value is the same in all spheres of production; the average organic composition of capital is the same in all branches of production; the demand for each good is equal to its supply; the length of the working day and the money price of labor power are constant; Agriculture carries out production in the same way as any other branch of production; there is no trading and banking capital; exports and imports are balanced; there are only two classes - capitalists and wage-workers; the capitalist is constantly striving for maximum profit, always acting rationally. The result was a model of a kind of “ideal” capitalism. Mental experimentation with it made it possible to formulate the laws of capitalist society, in particular, the most important of them - the law of value, according to which the production and exchange of goods are carried out on the basis of the costs of socially necessary labor.
A thought experiment allows introducing new concepts into the context of scientific theory, formulating the fundamental principles of a scientific concept.
Recently, for the implementation of modeling and conducting a thought experiment, it is increasingly usedcomputational experiment. The main advantage of the computer is that with its help in the study of very complex systems it is possible to deeply analyze not only their current, but also possible, including future states. The essence of a computational experiment is that an experiment is carried out on a certain mathematical model of an object using a computer. According to some parameters of the model, its other characteristics are calculated and on this basis conclusions are drawn about the properties of the phenomena represented by the mathematical model. The main stages of the computational experiment:
1) construction of a mathematical model of the object under study under certain conditions (as a rule, it is represented by a system of high-order equations);
2) determination of the computational algorithm for solving the basic system of equations;
3) building a program for the implementation of the task for a computer.
Computational experiment based on accumulated experience mathematical modeling, a bank of computational algorithms and software allows you to quickly and efficiently solve problems in almost any area of mathematical scientific knowledge. Turning to a computational experiment in a number of cases makes it possible to drastically reduce the cost scientific developments and intensify the process of scientific research, which is ensured by the multivariance of the calculations performed and the simplicity of modifications to simulate certain experimental conditions.
Formalization - a research method based on the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages. The use of special symbols makes it possible to eliminate polysemy and inaccuracy, figurativeness of natural language words. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous. Formalization serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thus the computerization of knowledge.
The main thing in the process of formalization is that it is possible to perform operations on the formulas of artificial languages, to obtain new formulas and relations from them. Thus, operations with thoughts are replaced by operations with signs and symbols (method boundaries).
The formalization method opens up opportunities for using more complex methods of theoretical research, for examplemathematical hypothesis method, where some equations representing a modification of previously known and verified states act as a hypothesis. By changing the latter, they make up a new equation expressing a hypothesis that relates to new phenomena.Often the original mathematical formula is borrowed from an adjacent and even non-adjacent field of knowledge, values of a different nature are substituted into it, and then they check whether the calculated and real behavior of the object matches. Of course, the applicability of this method is limited by those disciplines that have already accumulated a fairly rich mathematical arsenal.
Axiomatic Method- a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which some provisions are taken as its basis that do not require special proof (axioms or postulates), from which all other provisions are derived using formal logical proofs. The set of axioms and the provisions derived from them form an axiomatically constructed theory, which includes abstract sign models. Such a theory can be used for model representation of not one, but several classes of phenomena, for the characterization of not one, but several subject areas. To derive provisions from the axioms, special rules of inference are formulated - the provisions of mathematical logic. Finding the rules for correlating the axioms of a formally constructed knowledge system with a specific subject area is called interpretation. In modern natural science, examples of formal axiomatic theories are fundamental physical theories, which entails a number of specific problems of their interpretation and justification (especially for the theoretical constructions of non-classical and post-non-classical science).
Due to the specifics of axiomatically built systems of theoretical knowledge, intra-theoretical criteria of truth are of particular importance for their substantiation: the requirement of consistency and completeness of the theory and the requirement of sufficient grounds to prove or refute any position formulated within the framework of such a theory.
This method is widely used in mathematics, as well as in those natural sciences where the formalization method is used. (The limitation of the method).
Hypothetical-deductive method- a method of constructing a scientific theory, which is based on the creation of a system of interrelated hypotheses, from which a system of particular hypotheses is then deduced by deductive deployment, subject to experimental verification. Thus, this method is based on the deduction (derivation) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. And this means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably have a probabilistic character.
The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method:
1) putting forward a hypothesis about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;
2) assessment of the validity of hypotheses and selection of the most probable one from their set;
3) deduction from the hypothesis by deductive means of consequences with specification of its content;
4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, the confirmation of individual consequences does not guarantee its truth or falsity as a whole. The hypothesis that is best based on the test results goes into theory.
Method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete- a method that initially finds the original abstraction (the main connection (relation) of the object under study), and then, step by step, through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge, it is traced how it changes under various conditions, new connections are opened, their interactions are established and, thus, the essence of the object under study is displayed in its entirety.
Method of historical and logical analysis. The historical method requires a description of the actual history of the object in all the diversity of its existence. The logical method is a mental reconstruction of the history of an object, cleared of everything accidental, insignificant and focused on revealing the essence. Unity of logical and historical analysis.
Logical procedures for substantiating scientific knowledge
All specific methods, both empirical and theoretical, are accompanied by logical procedures. The effectiveness of empirical and theoretical methods is directly dependent on how correctly the corresponding scientific reasoning is built from the point of view of logic.
Rationale - a logical procedure associated with the evaluation of a certain product of knowledge as a component of a system of scientific knowledge in terms of its compliance with the functions, goals and objectives of this system.
The main types of justification:
Proof - a logical procedure in which an expression with an unknown value is derived from statements whose truth has already been established. This allows you to eliminate any doubts and recognize the truth of this expression.
Proof structure:
Thesis (expression, truth, which is established);
Arguments, arguments (statements by which the truth of the thesis is established);
Additional assumptions (expressions of an auxiliary nature, introduced into the structure of the proof and eliminated during the transition to the final result);
Demonstration (logical form of this procedure).
A typical example of a proof is any mathematical reasoning that leads to the adoption of some new theorem. In it, this theorem acts as a thesis, previously proven theorems and axioms as arguments, and the demonstration is a form of deduction.
Types of evidence:
Direct (the thesis directly follows from the arguments);
Indirect (the thesis is proved indirectly):
Apagogical (proof by contradiction - establishing the falsity of the antithesis: it is assumed that the antithesis is true, and consequences are derived from it, if at least one of the consequences obtained conflicts with the available true judgments, then the consequence is recognized as false, and after it the antithesis itself - the truth of the thesis is recognized);
Dividing (the truth of the thesis is established by excluding all alternatives opposing it).
Proof is closely related to such a logical procedure as refutation.
Refutation - a logical procedure that establishes the falsity of the thesis of a logical statement.
Types of rebuttal:
Proof of the antithesis (a statement is independently proved that contradicts the refuted thesis);
Establishing the falsity of the consequences arising from the thesis (an assumption is made about the truth of the refuted thesis and consequences are derived from it; if at least one consequence does not correspond to reality, i.e. is false, then the assumption will be false - the refuted thesis).
Thus, with the help of a refutation, a negative result is achieved. But he also has positive effect: Narrows the true position search circle.
Confirmation - partial justification of the truth of some statement. It plays a special role in the presence of hypotheses and the absence of sufficient arguments for their acceptance. If the proof achieves a complete substantiation of the truth of some statement, then the confirmation achieves a partial justification.
Proposition B confirms hypothesis A if and only if proposition B is a true consequence of A. This criterion is true in those cases when the confirmed and confirming belong to the same level of knowledge. Therefore, it is reliable in mathematics or in checking elementary generalizations that are reducible to the results of observations. However, there are significant reservations, if the confirmed and confirming are at different cognitive levels - the confirmation of theoretical provisions by empirical data. The latter are formed under the influence of various, including random, factors. Only their accounting and reduction to zero can bring confirmation.
If the hypothesis is confirmed by the facts, this does not mean at all that it should be immediately and unconditionally accepted. According to the rules of logic, the truth of consequence B does not mean the truth of reason A. Each new consequence makes the hypothesis more and more probable, but in order to become an element of the corresponding system of theoretical knowledge, it must go through a long way of testing for applicability in this system and the ability to fulfill its defined the nature of the function.
Thus, when confirming the thesis:
Its consequences serve as arguments;
The demonstration is not of a necessary (deductive) nature.
Objection is the logical procedure opposite to confirmation. It is aimed at weakening some thesis (hypothesis).
Types of objections:
Direct (direct consideration of the shortcomings of the thesis; as a rule, by giving a true antithesis, or by using an antithesis that is not sufficiently substantiated and has a certain degree of probability);
Indirect (directed not against the thesis itself, but against the arguments given in its justification or the logical form of its connection with the arguments (demonstrations).
Explanation - a logical procedure that reveals the essential characteristics, causal relationships or functional relationships of some object.
Explanation types:
1) Objective (depends on the nature of the object):
Essential (aimed at revealing the essential characteristics of some object). The arguments are scientific theories and laws;
Causal (provisions about the causes of certain phenomena act as arguments;
Functional (the role performed by some element in the system is considered)
2) Subjective (depends on the direction of the subject, the historical context - the same fact can receive a different explanation depending on the specific conditions and direction of the subject). It is used in non-classical and post-non-classical science - the requirement to clearly fix the features of the means of observation, etc. Not only representation, but also the selection of facts bears traces of subjective activity.
Objectivism and subjectivism.
The difference between explanation and proof: proof establishes the truth of the thesis; when explaining, a certain thesis has already been proven (depending on the direction, the same syllogism can be both a proof and an explanation).
Interpretation - a logical procedure that ascribes some meaningful meaning or meaning to the symbols or formulas of a formal system. As a result, the formal system turns into a language that describes a particular subject area. This subject area itself, as well as the meanings attributed to formulas and signs, is also called interpretation. A formal theory is not substantiated until it has an interpretation. It can also be endowed with a new meaning and a new interpretation of a previously developed content theory.
A classic example of interpretation is finding a fragment of reality, the properties of which were described by Lobachevsky geometry (surfaces of negative curvature). Interpretation is used primarily in the most abstract sciences (logic, mathematics).
Methods for systematizing scientific knowledge
Classification - a method of dividing the set of objects under study into subsets based on strictly fixed similarities and differences. Classification is a way of organizing an empirical array of information. The purpose of classification is to determine the place in the system of any object, and thereby to establish the presence of some links between objects. The subject, who owns the criterion of classification, gets the opportunity to navigate in the variety of concepts and (and) objects. Classification always reflects the level of knowledge available at a given time, summarizes it. On the other hand, classification makes it possible to detect gaps in existing knowledge and serve as a basis for diagnostic and prognostic procedures. In the so-called descriptive science, it was the result (goal) of knowledge (systematics in biology, attempts to classify sciences for various reasons, etc.), and further development was presented as its improvement or the proposal of a new classification.
Distinguish between natural and artificial classifications, depending on the significance of the feature that underlies it. Natural classifications involve finding a meaningful criterion for distinguishing; artificial ones can in principle be built on the basis of any feature. Iskus variant c The main classifications are various auxiliary classifications such as alphabetical indexes, etc. In addition, there are theoretical (in particular, genetic) and empirical classifications (within the latter, the establishment of a classification criterion is largely problematic).
Typology - a method of dividing a certain set of objects under study into ordered and systematized groups with certain properties using an idealized model or type (ideal or constructive). Typology is based on the concept of fuzzy sets, i.e. sets that do not have clear boundaries, when the transition from belonging to the set to not belonging to the set occurs gradually, not abruptly, i.e. elements of a certain subject area belong to it only with a certain degree of membership.
Typologization is carried out according to a chosen and conceptually substantiated criterion (criteria), or according to an empirically discovered and theoretically interpreted basis (grounds), which makes it possible to distinguish between theoretical and empirical typologies, respectively. It is assumed that the differences between the units that form the type in the relation of interest to the researcher are of a random nature (due to factors that cannot be taken into account) and are insignificant compared to similar differences between objects assigned to different types.
The result of typology is a typology substantiated within it. The latter can be considered in a number of sciences as a form of knowledge representation, or as a precursor to the construction of a theory of any subject area, or as a final one when it is impossible (or unprepared for the scientific community) to formulate a theory adequate to the field of study.
Relationship and difference between classification and typology:
Classification involves finding a clear place for each element (object) in a group (class) or series (sequence), with clear boundaries between classes or series (one individual element cannot simultaneously belong to different classes (series), or not be included in any or none of them at all). In addition, it is believed that the classification criterion can be random, and the typology criterion is always essential. Typology singles out homogeneous sets, each of which is a modification of the same quality (essential, "root" feature, more precisely, the "idea" of this set). Naturally, in contrast to the feature of classification, the "idea" of typology is far from visual, outwardly manifested and detectable. Classification is weaker than typology related to content
At the same time, some classifications, especially empirical ones, can be interpreted as preliminary (primary) typologies, or as a transitional procedure for ordering elements (objects) on the way to typology.
The language of science. Specifics of scientific terminology
Both in empirical and theoretical research, the language of science plays a special role, revealing a number of features in comparison with the language of everyday knowledge. There are several reasons why ordinary language is not enough to describe the objects of scientific research:
Its vocabulary does not allow fixing information about objects that go beyond the sphere of direct practical activity of a person and his everyday knowledge;
The concepts of everyday language are vague and ambiguous;
The grammatical constructions of ordinary language are formed spontaneously, contain historical layers, are often cumbersome and do not allow to clearly express the structure of thought, the logic of mental activity.
Due to these features, scientific knowledge involves the development and use of specialized, artificial languages. Their number is constantly increasing as science develops. The first example of the creation of special language means is Aristotle's introduction of symbolic designations into logic.
The need for an accurate and adequate language led in the course of the development of science to the creation of a special terminology. Along with this, the need to improve linguistic means in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages of science.
Features of the language of science:
Clarity and unambiguity of concepts;
The presence of clear rules that determine the meaning of the original terms;
Lack of cultural and historical layers.
The language of science distinguishes between object language and metalanguage.
Object (subject) language- a language whose expressions refer to a certain area of objects, their properties and relationships. For example, the language of mechanics describes the properties of mechanical motion material bodies and interactions between them; the language of arithmetic speaks of numbers, their properties, operations on numbers; the language of chemistry is about chemicals and reactions, etc. In general, any language is usually used primarily to talk about some extralinguistic objects, and in this sense, every language is an object language.
Metalanguage is a language used to express judgments about another language, the language-object. With the help of M., they study the structure of expressions of the object language, its expressive properties, its relation to other languages, etc. Example: in an English textbook for Russians, Russian is a metalanguage, and English is an object language.Along with this, the need to improve linguistic means in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages of science.
Of course, in natural language, object language and metalanguage are combined: we speak in this language both about objects and about the expressions of the language themselves. Such a language is called semantically closed. Linguistic intuition usually helps us avoid the paradoxes that result from the semantic closure of natural language. But when building formalized languages, care is taken to ensure that the object language is clearly separated from the metalanguage.
Scientific terminology- a set of words with an exact, single meaning within the framework of a given scientific discipline.
The basis of scientific terminology is scientific definitions.
There are two meanings of the term "definition":
1) definition - an operation that allows you to select a certain object among other objects, unambiguously distinguish it from them; this is achieved by pointing to a feature inherent in this, and only this, object (a distinctive feature) (for example, to select a square from the class of rectangles, one points to such a feature that is inherent in squares and not inherent in other rectangles, such as equality of sides);
2) definition - a logical operation that makes it possible to reveal, clarify or form the meaning of some linguistic expressions using other linguistic expressions (for example, a tithe is an area equal to 1.09 hectares - since a person understands the meaning of the expression "1.09 hectares", for it becomes clear the meaning of the word "tithe".
A definition that gives a distinctive characteristic of some object is called real. A definition that reveals, clarifies or forms the meaning of some linguistic expressions with the help of others is called nominal. These two concepts are not mutually exclusive. The definition of an expression can be at the same time the definition of the corresponding object.
Rated:
Explicit (classical and genetic or inductive);
Contextual.
In science, definitions play an essential role. Giving a definition, we get the opportunity to solve a number of cognitive tasks related, firstly, to the procedures of naming and recognition. These tasks include:
Establishing the meaning of an unfamiliar language expression using familiar and already meaningful expressions (registering definitions);
Clarification of terms and, at the same time, development of an unambiguous characteristic of the subject under consideration (clarifying definitions);
Introduction to scientific circulation of new terms or concepts (postulating definitions).
Secondly, definitions allow you to build inference procedures. Thanks to definitions, words acquire accuracy, clarity and unambiguity.
However, the importance of definitions should not be exaggerated. It must be borne in mind that they do not reflect the entire content of the subject in question. The actual study of a scientific theory is not reduced to mastering the sum of definitions that they contain. Question about the accuracy of terms.
Proc. allowance. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. nat. research poly-tech. un-ta, 2014. - 186 p. — ISBN 978-5-398-01216-3. The basics of the methodology of scientific research are outlined, various levels of scientific knowledge are considered. The stages of scientific research work are highlighted, including the choice of the direction of research, the formulation of a scientific and technical problem, the conduct of theoretical and experimental research, and recommendations for formalizing the results of scientific work. The basics of inventive creativity, patent search and an approximate master's thesis plan are also considered.
Complies with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the direction of preparation 270800.68 - "Construction" master's program "Underground and urban construction". Corresponds to the content of the discipline "Methodology of scientific research".
Designed to systematize and deepen students' knowledge in preparation for the test. Content.
Methodological foundations of scientific knowledge.
Definition of science.
Science and other forms of development of reality.
The main stages in the development of science.
The concept of scientific knowledge.
Methods of scientific knowledge.
Ethical and aesthetic foundations of the methodology.
Choice of the direction of scientific research. Statement of a scientific and technical problem and stages of research work.
Methods of choice and goals of the direction of scientific research.
Statement of scientific and technical problem. Stages of research work.
Relevance and scientific novelty of the study.
Proposing a working hypothesis.
Search, accumulation and processing of scientific information.
Documentary sources of information.
Document analysis.
Search and accumulation of scientific information.
Electronic forms of information resources.
Processing of scientific information, its fixation and storage.
Theoretical and experimental studies.
Methods and features of theoretical research.
Structure and models of theoretical research.
General information about experimental studies.
Methodology and planning of the experiment.
Metrological support of experimental studies.
Organization of the workplace of the experimenter.
Influence of psychological factors on the course and quality of the experiment.
Processing the results of experimental studies.
Fundamentals of the theory of random errors and methods for estimating random errors in measurements.
Interval estimation of measurements using confidence probability.
Methods for graphical processing of measurement results.
Registration of results of scientific research.
oral presentation of information.
Presentation and argumentation of the conclusions of scientific work.
The concept and structure of a master's thesis.
The concept and features of a master's thesis.
The structure of the master's thesis.
Formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study.
Fundamentals of inventive creativity.
General information.
Objects of the invention.
Conditions for the patentability of an invention.
Conditions for the patentability of a utility model.
Conditions for the patentability of an industrial design.
Patent search.
Organization of the scientific team. Features of scientific activity.
Structural organization of the scientific team and methods of managing scientific research.
Basic principles of organizing the activities of the scientific team.
Methods of rallying the scientific team.
Psychological aspects of the relationship between the leader and the subordinate.
Features of scientific activity.
The role of science in modern society.
Social functions of science.
Science and morality.
Contradictions in science and practice.
The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:
- 1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);
- 2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.
Each science has its own methodology. According to other authors, methodology is the doctrine of the methods used in the legal sciences to study their subject. Ultimately, the methodology of scientific research is understood as the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, i.e. about the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks.
There are the following levels of methodology:
- 1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.
- 2. Private methodology of scientific research for a group of related sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition.
- 3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, particular and special methods of cognition.
Methodology - as the doctrine of the methods and techniques of research - considers the essential characteristics of specific methods of cognition that make up general direction research. These methods include techniques and methods of the empirical and theoretical stages of the study.
The value of the methodology of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that it allows you to systematize the entire volume of scientific knowledge and create conditions for the development of further, effective areas of research. The main task of the methodology of scientific knowledge is the synthesis of accumulated scientific knowledge, which allows using the achievements of the development of science for practical purposes. Methodology studies the methods, means and techniques by which different systems knowledge.
The methodological apparatus includes:
- - principles of organization and conduct of scientific research;
- - methods of scientific research and ways to determine its strategy;
- - scientific apparatus: the conceptual and categorical basis of scientific research (relevance, scientific novelty, heuristic value, theoretical and practical significance, problems, object, subject, hypothesis, goal and task).
All components of scientific research together serve as the basis of the methodological apparatus, therefore, scientific research is understood as purposeful knowledge, the results of which are presented in the form of a system of concepts, laws, theories.
Basic principles of the methodology of knowledge:
- - the principle of unity of theory and practice, which are interdependent Practice - the criterion of the truth of a theoretical position. A theory that is not based on practice turns out to be speculative and fruitless. Theory is designed to illuminate the path to practice. Practice that is not guided by scientific theory suffers from spontaneity, lack of proper purposefulness, and inefficiency;
- - the principle of objectivity, which requires taking into account all the factors that characterize a particular phenomenon. The art of the researcher is to find ways and means of penetrating the essence of the phenomenon without introducing anything external, subjective;
- - the principle of specificity, which indicates the essential aspects and patterns of objective processes and specific approaches to their assessment;
- - the principle of development, which consists in the formation of scientific knowledge with the display of differences, quantitative and qualitative changes in the object of knowledge;
- - the principle of regularity, which needs the conditionality of phenomena, taking into account the relationships and connections between them.
- - the principle of consistency, i.e. a systematic approach to the objects under study. It involves considering the object of study as a system: identifying a certain set of its elements (it is impossible to single out and take into account all of them, and this is not required), establishing a classification and streamlining the links between these elements, singling out system-forming ones from the set of links, i.e., providing a connection of different elements into the system.
- - the principle of comprehensive study of processes and phenomena. Any phenomenon is connected by many threads with other phenomena, and its isolated, one-sided consideration inevitably leads to a distorted, erroneous conclusion. For example, the educational process in a university is complex, dynamic and inextricably linked with many factors. This approach makes it possible to model the studied phenomena and explore them in a state of development and in different conditions. It allows you to carry out a multi-level and multi-faceted study of a particular process, during which not one, but a number of models are built that reflect this phenomenon at different levels and sections. At the same time, it is possible to synthesize these models in a new holistic generalizing model and, ultimately, in a holistic theory that reveals the essence of the problem under study. Methodological principle comprehensiveness implies an integrated approach to the study of pedagogical processes and phenomena. One of the most important requirements integrated approach-- establishing all the relationships of the phenomenon under study, taking into account all external influences that influence it, the elimination of all random factors that distort the picture of the problem under study. Another essential requirement is the use of various methods in their various combinations in the course of research. Experience shows that it is impossible to successfully investigate this or that problem with the help of any one universal method.
- - the principle of unity of historical and logical. The logic of cognition of an object, a phenomenon reproduces the logic of its development, i.e. its history. The history of personality development, for example, serves as a kind of key to understanding a particular personality, making practical decisions on its upbringing and education. In the history of the development of personality, its essence is reflected, since a person is only a personality insofar as he has his own history, life path, biography"
There are different levels of methodological analysis, in particular:
- - dynamic level: worldview interpretation of the results of science, analysis general forms and methods of scientific thinking, its categorical approach;
- - static level; principles, approaches, forms of research that are of a general scientific nature;
- - analytical-synthetic level, that is, a specific scientific methodology as a set of methods and principles of research that are used in a particular field of science;
- - subject level, that is, disciplinary methodology as a set of research methods and principles that are used in one or another scientific discipline in a particular field of science or at the intersection of sciences, where the scientific discipline itself is the main form of organizing scientific knowledge;
- - interdisciplinary level - the methodology of interdisciplinary complex research, which, according to the logic of scientific research, is the sphere of interaction between different sciences, when obtaining knowledge about the subject of research is possible only in the interaction of different subsystems, taking into account complex knowledge about the subject.
The basics of the methodology of scientific research are outlined, various levels of scientific knowledge are considered. The stages of scientific research work are highlighted, including the choice of the direction of research, the formulation of a scientific and technical problem, the conduct of theoretical and experimental research, and recommendations for formalizing the results of scientific work. The basics of inventive creativity, patent search and an approximate master's thesis plan are also considered.
Complies with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the direction of preparation 270800.68 - "Construction" master's program "Underground and urban construction". Corresponds to the content of the discipline "Methodology of scientific research".
Designed to systematize and deepen students' knowledge in preparation for the test.
Chapter 1. METHODOLOGICAL BASES OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE.
1.1. Definition of science
Science is a field of research aimed at obtaining new knowledge about nature, society and thinking. Science is the most important component of spiritual culture. It is characterized by the following interrelated features:
- a set of objective and reasonable knowledge about nature, man, society;
- activities aimed at obtaining new reliable knowledge;
- a set of social institutions that ensure the existence, functioning and development of cognition and knowledge.
The term "science" is also used to refer to certain areas of scientific knowledge: mathematics, physics, biology, etc.
The purpose of science is to obtain knowledge about the subjective and objective world.
The tasks of science are:
- collection, description, analysis, generalization and explanation of facts;
- discovery of the laws of motion of nature, society, thinking and cognition;
- systematization of acquired knowledge;
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction.
Chapter 1. Methodological foundations of scientific knowledge.
1.1. Definition of science.
1.2. Science and other forms of development of reality.
1.3. The main stages in the development of science.
1.4. The concept of scientific knowledge.
1.5. Methods of scientific knowledge.
1.6. Ethical and aesthetic foundations of the methodology.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 2. Choosing the direction of scientific research.
Statement of a scientific and technical problem and stages of research work.
2.1. Methods of choice and goals of the direction of scientific research.
2.2. Statement of scientific and technical problem. Stages of research work.
2.3. Relevance and scientific novelty of the study.
2.4. Proposing a working hypothesis. Questions for self-control.
Chapter 3. Search, accumulation and processing of scientific information.
3.1. Documentary sources of information.
3.2. Document analysis.
3.3. Search and accumulation of scientific information.
3.4. Electronic forms of information resources.
3.5. Processing of scientific information, its fixation and storage. Questions for self-control.
Chapter 4. Theoretical and experimental studies.
4.1. Methods and features of theoretical research.
4.2. Structure and models of theoretical research.
4.3. General information about experimental studies.
4.4. Methodology and planning of the experiment.
4.5. Metrological support of experimental studies.
4.6. Organization of the workplace of the experimenter.
4.7. Influence of psychological factors on the course and quality of the experiment.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 5. Processing the results of experimental studies.
5.1. Fundamentals of the theory of random errors and methods for estimating random errors in measurements.
5.2. Interval estimation of measurements using confidence probability.
5.3. Methods for graphical processing of measurement results.
5.4. Registration of results of scientific research.
5.5. oral presentation of information.
5.6. Presentation and argumentation of the conclusions of scientific work.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 6. The concept and structure of the master's thesis.
6.1. The concept and features of a master's thesis.
6.2. The structure of the master's thesis.
6.3. Formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 7. Fundamentals of inventive creativity.
7.1. General information.
7.2. Objects of the invention.
7.3. Conditions for the patentability of an invention.
7.4. Conditions for the patentability of a utility model.
7.5. Conditions for the patentability of an industrial design.
7.6. Patent search.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 8. Organization of the scientific team. Features of scientific activity.
8.1. Structural organization of the scientific team and methods of managing scientific research.
8.2. Basic principles of organizing the activities of the scientific team.
8.3. Methods of rallying the scientific team.
8.4. Psychological aspects of the relationship between the leader and the subordinate.
8.5. Features of scientific activity.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 9. The role of science in modern society.
9.1. Social functions of science.
9.2. Science and morality.
9.3. Contradictions in science and practice.
Questions for self-control.
Bibliography.
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