Features of the economic development of the Russian Empire. On economic growth in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century

The economic policy of the Russian Empire is a descent into the abyss

Before analyzing in detail the economic policy of the early 20th century, it is necessary to briefly outline how the situation developed until Nicholas II ascended the throne.

A distinctive feature of Russia as an empire was the endless wars it waged, which inevitably led to huge budget deficits, so the economy always needed additional issue of banknotes. One of the most costly was the Crimean War, which forced the printing of paper money in large quantities.

During the era of military campaigns and reforms of Alexander II, the total amount of budget deficits amounted to, astronomical for those times, 1 billion rubles. and half of this billion occurred in 1855-1856. Such huge costs had to be covered by foreign borrowing. The colossal growth of public debt led to the fact that in the 1857 budget, out of 268 million rubles. income, 100 million rubles were intended for debt servicing. Following the reign of Alexander II, the national debt increased threefold.

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia harvested huge grain harvests during crop failures in Europe, which made it possible to develop grain exports to enormous proportions. Since 1888, a new significant item of income has appeared in the budget - income from state-owned railways. Combined with austerity policies, this made it possible to achieve a deficit-free budget and even an excess of government revenues over expenses. At the same time, a policy of customs protectionism is being introduced, which makes it possible not only to pay interest on external government debt in gold and silver, but also to accumulate state gold reserves. This policy, however, collapses due to a bad harvest in 1891. The government was forced to ban the export of bread this year and allocate 161 million rubles. to purchase food for the hungry. These expenses had a noticeable impact on the state treasury, forcing them to print paper money again and resort to new loans.

By the time Nicholas II ascended the throne, payments on the national debt amounted to 20% of government spending. With a total treasury income of 1.7 billion rubles. 346 million rubles are spent on debt servicing. In 1897, the “financial genius”, a representative of the new wave of monetarist economists, Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte, concerned about Russia’s successful entry into the world economy, proposed a monetary reform to the Emperor, aimed at strengthening investment activity and increasing the influx of foreign capital into the country. The Emperor agrees. And in 1897, a reform took place that tied the ruble to gold, and as we will see later, this became the beginning of the collapse of the Russian Empire and its loss of economic sovereignty.

After the reform, foreign capital poured into the country and began building new enterprises. As a result, the rate of industrial growth increased sharply. However, the West had nothing to fear from Russia, which “rushed” forward. The more efficiently the Russian economy worked, the more income the banks of Western countries received. It is very significant that after the reform the amount of external debt continued to grow. The Russo-Japanese War forced further increases in borrowing. Public debt increased from 6.6 billion rubles. up to 8.7 billion rubles. The place of the main creditor of the Russian Empire (about 60% of borrowings) belonged to France.

In 1887-1913. The West invested 1,783 million gold rubles in Russia. During the same period, net income was exported from Russia - 2326 million gold rubles (the excess of income over investments over 26 years was 513 million gold rubles). Annually, up to 500 million gold rubles were transferred abroad in interest payments and loan repayments (in modern prices this is 15 billion dollars).

For the period from 1888-1908. Russia had a positive trade balance with other countries in the amount of 6.6 billion gold rubles. This amount was 1.6 times higher than the cost of all Russian industrial enterprises and their working capital. In other words, having built 2 enterprises in Russia, the West used Russian money to build 3 enterprises at home. Therefore, the average per capita income in Tsarist Russia grew much slower than the average per capita income of those countries that robbed Russia with their “investments and loans.”

Moreover, all these enterprises did not belong to Russia at all. Take, for example, the book “Securities of the Russian State,” published in Moscow in 1995. In it, the authors provide photographs of samples of securities. Having carefully examined these photographs, we see that Russian industry was practically divided between Western states.

For example, shares of enterprises, banks and railways of the Russian Empire had inscriptions in Russian, German, English and French, in addition to distribution addresses in St. Petersburg and Moscow, they had distribution addresses in Europe and the United States.

In other words, at least 2/3 of Russia’s industry did not belong to it and did not work for the well-being of the country, but to support the growth of foreign economies. Isn't it a very familiar picture?

First of all, Russia, even in terms of industrial production, lagged behind the USA, England, Germany and France. Its share in the total industrial production of the five powers listed above was only 4.2%.

In global production in 1913, the share of Russia was 1.72%, the share of the USA - 20%, England - 18%, Germany - 9%, France - 7.2% (these are all countries with a population 2-3 times smaller than Russia).

And this despite the fact that in Russia in 1913 there was a record (80 million tons) grain harvest.

The average yield in Russia is 8 centners per hectare. The figures are very low. Despite this, Russia exported approximately 10 million tons of grain abroad annually. As a result, in terms of bread consumption, Russia consumed 345 kilograms of bread per person per year. USA 992 kilograms, Denmark 912 kilograms, France 544, Germany 432 kilograms. At one time, V.I. spoke about this situation in Germany. Lenin said a very interesting phrase: “In Germany there was not just hunger, but a brilliantly organized famine.”

In terms of gross national product per capita, Russia was inferior to the United States - 9.5 times, England - 4.5, Canada - 4, Germany - 3.5, France, Belgium, Holland, Australia, New Zealand, Spain - 3 times, Austria-Hungary - 2 times.

Russia continued to lag behind - in 1913 its GNP correlated with Germany's GNP as 3.3 to 10, while in 1850 the ratio was 4 to 10.

Volumes of industrial production in 1913:

General, million rubles

Per capita, rub.

Great Britain

Germany

When they talk about economic growth, they somehow leave aside one very interesting thing - despite economic growth, per capita income in Russia from 1885 to 1913 decreased by almost half, the gap with developed countries almost doubled. That is, Russia did not develop, Russia regressed.

By 1913, Russia had lost its economic sovereignty. This is only the property in Russia that belonged to foreign capital. Not to mention even the loans that were taken.

The First World War, which the Russian Empire entered in 1914, revealed with particular clarity the depravity of the economic model adopted. The economy, which entered the world economic system, turned out to be unable to provide for the urgent vital problems of the country and the army waging war. As a result: gold reserves amounted to 1.7 billion rubles at the beginning of the war. in 1914, in 1915, and a year later, it decreased to 1.3 billion rubles. and by January 1917 it amounted to 1.1 billion rubles. External debt during the first year of the war increased from 8.8 billion rubles. in 1914, up to 10.5 billion rubles. in 1915, and by January 1917 it amounted to 33.6 billion rubles.

There were not enough weapons for the army and food for the country. The issue of money not backed by gold began. Inflation reached 13,000%. The peasants refused to sell food, and at the end of 1916 the state was forced to introduce surplus appropriation.

It turned out that at state-owned factories 122 mm shrapnel costs 15 rubles per pound, and at a private factory 35 since the main defense factories in Petrograd and the Urals belonged to foreign capital.

And here is the conversation between Nicholas II and the head of the main artillery department, Manyakovsky:

Nicholas II: People are complaining about you that you are restricting the initiative of society in supplying the army.

Manyakovsky: Your Majesty, they are already making 300% profit from supplies to the army, and sometimes even 1000%.

Nicholas II: Well, let them profit, as long as they don’t steal.

Manyakovsky: Your Majesty, but this is not even theft, but pure robbery.

Nicholas II: Still, there is no need to irritate public opinion.

(N. Yakovlev, Decree, p. 196)

What state goals did Russia pursue in the First World War? We all know the talk that Russia fought for the Bosporus and Dardanelles. But why does Russia need them as a state? If we look closely at the map, we will see that, strictly speaking, no state problems were solved by the acquisition of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Only trade problems were solved. Here we go again to the map. You can see the French enclave. The richest, most fertile lands, latifundia, which were under French influence through receiving loans through French-owned railways. The export of grain through Odessa in the direction of Constantinople was necessary for private capital so that there would be no courier barrier on the straits in order to safely export their grain to Europe through the Mediterranean Sea. That is why, in order to fulfill the economic tasks that England and France, members of the Entente, set for themselves, Russia was drawn into the war.

As a result, the Russian Empire collapsed, unable to withstand the test of the world war. The Provisional Government that replaced it not only did not correct the situation in the economy, but, on the contrary, worsened it even more. The already huge national debt grew by July 1917 to 44 billion rubles. and by October it was 60 billion rubles. Inflation continued in the country - an excess of money in circulation. Its inevitable companion was the depreciation of money and rising prices. By February 1917, the purchasing power of the ruble was 27 kopecks; by October 1917, the purchasing power of the ruble had fallen to 6-7 kopecks of the pre-war level.

We can give this curious example: the only normally operating industrial enterprise in Russia in March-October 1917 was the Expedition for the procurement of state papers in Petrograd on the Fontanka (current Goznak, which celebrated its 190th anniversary in 2008). This factory, under the Provisional Government, worked continuously, in 4 shifts, and threw more and more paper money into the market, which cost less and less. The Provisional Government, which suffered a political defeat, was replaced by the Bolsheviks, who took upon themselves the difficult burden of solving all the accumulated problems. An analysis of the economic state of the Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and up to October 17 clearly shows that the transfer of the Russian Empire to the rails of liberal monetarism ended in collapse and disaster for it. Unfortunately, since the collapse of the USSR, Russia has been led along the same path. Doesn't this mean that modern capitalism has not abandoned its longed-for desires for economic enslavement and the division of our country into zones of economic expansion?..

So, the light industry of the Russian Empire can be characterized as follows: high-class, world-class products, extremely dynamically developing. After the Bolshevik occupation, the entire light industry was virtually destroyed and eked out a miserable existence.

Food industry and agriculture

Agriculture in the Russian Empire generated significant income from exports, especially wheat. The structure of exports can be presented on this graph; for more information about the harvest for 1883–1914, you can see the detailed report

Russia took first place in grain collection; trade in grain, eggs (50% of the world market) and butter brought in the majority of export income. And here, as we see, the role of private forces was again the most important. The state was poorly represented in agriculture, although it owned 154 million dessiatines of land, while 213 million dessiatines belonged to peasant communities and individuals. Only 6 million dessiatines of the state were cultivated, the rest was mainly forest. In other words, enterprising peasants provided the basis of the country's economy by producing goods, the sale of which made it possible to buy necessary foreign goods.

Productivity for 1883–1914

Livestock farming was relatively developed. “The number of horses per 100 inhabitants: Russia — 19.7, Britain — 3.7, Austria-Hungary — 7.5, Germany — 4.9. France - 5.8, Italy - 2.8. The only European country that competes with Russia is Denmark. There, there were 20.5 horses per 100 people. In general, the supply of horses was at the level of America, but inferior to Argentina, Canada and Australia.
In cattle, Russia was not a leader — rather, a strong middle peasant. On average, there were 29.3 head of cattle per 100 inhabitants of the Russian Empire. In Austria-Hungary - 30, in Britain - 26.1, in Germany - 30, in Italy - 18, in France - 32.1, in the USA - 62.2. That is, pre-revolutionary Russia was quite adequately provided with cattle — in fact, every third person had a cow.
When it comes to sheep, Russia is also a strong average: the indicators are not the best, but far from the worst. On average — 44.9 sheep and rams per 100 people. In Austria-Hungary this number was less than 30, in Britain - 60.7, in Germany - 7.5, in Italy - 32.3, in France - 30.5, in America - 40.8 sheep per hundred people. The only industry in which Russia was inferior to some of the leading powers was pig farming; it was not very widespread. On average, there were 9.5 pigs per 100 people. In Austria-Hungary - about 30, in Britain - 8.1, in Germany - 25.5, in Italy - 7.3, in France - 11.2. However, here the average level is not inferior to French or British.” Data from here.

The mechanization of agriculture from 1905 to 1913 can be represented in the form of the following figures:

97 units of steam plows were imported in 1905, and 73 thousand units in 1912.

In 1905, 30.5 thousand seeders were imported, in 1913 about 500 thousand.

In 1905, 489.6 thousand locomobiles were imported; in 1913, more than 1 million units.

In 1905, 2.6 million pounds of Thomas slag were imported, in 1913 - 11.2 million.

In 1905, 770 thousand pounds of phosphorites were imported, in 1913 - 3.2 million.

In 1905, 1.7 million poods of superphosphates were imported, in 1913 - 12 million.

Nikolai Vasilievich Vereshchagin. “Cheerful milkman” of a healthy person.

Butter production developed. Exports of butter in 1897 amounted to 529 thousand poods worth 5 million rubles, although before that there was almost no export. In 1900, 1,189 thousand poods worth 13 million rubles, in 1905 exports increased to 2.5 million poods worth 30 million rubles, and a year later 3 million poods worth 44 million rubles were already exported. At the same time, the Empire owed the development of the industry to Nikolai Vasilyevich Vereshchagin. “Transportation by rail, as statistics have shown, is over 20,000,000 poods per year, and since up to 3,000,000 poods of oil from this amount is exported abroad and is estimated at approximately 30,000,000 rubles, then the rest, over 17,000,000 poods, in any case, it is worth no less than 30,000,000 rubles, and, therefore, we already produce approximately 60,000,000 rubles worth of dairy products per year. The value of better-yielding cattle and more productive land has undoubtedly increased considerably wherever improved dairy farming has taken root.”

Sugar production increased from 1887 to 1913 from 25.9 million poods to 75.4 million poods. Its consumption also increased (see table):

Population

It is no secret that the population of the Russian Empire grew at a very rapid pace. The population of the European part of Russia from 1897 to 1914 grew from 94 million to 128 million, Siberia from 5.7 million to 10 million. The total for the Empire, including Finland, from 129 million to 178 million people (according to other sources, in 1913 the population excluding Finland was 166 million). The urban population, according to 1913 data, was 14.2%, i.e. more than 24.6 million people. In 1916, about 181.5 million people already lived in the Empire. In essence, this human asset laid the foundations for the future victory in the Second World War - this is the numerical advantage of people who grew up in the relatively well-fed imperial years, received good immunity and physical characteristics, and provided Russia with labor and an army for many years to come (as well as those who was born to them in the early 1920s).

Education

The number of students in lower, secondary and higher educational institutions, as well as literacy, grew steadily in the last decades of the Empire. This can be assessed from the following data:

Education budget of the Ministry of Public Education for the period from 1894 to 1914: 25.2 million rubles and 161.2 million rubles. An increase of 628%. According to other sources, the MNE budget was 142 million rubles in 1914. The total expenditure of ministries on education was 280–300 million + expenses of cities and zemstvos of about 360 million rubles. In total, total expenses on education in the Republic of Ingushetia in 1914 amounted to 640 million rubles, or 3.7 rubles per person. For comparison, in England this figure was 2.8 rubles.

The intention to achieve full literacy as a long-term goal of the government was obvious. If in 1889 the ability to read among men and women aged 9 to 20 was 31% and 13%, respectively, then in 1913 this ratio was already 54% and 26%. Russia, of course, lagged behind all developed European countries in this regard, where from 75% to 99% of the population could read and write.

The number of primary educational institutions by 1914 was 123,745 units.

The number of secondary educational institutions by 1914: about 1800 units.

The number of universities by 1914: 63 state, public and private units. The number of students was 123,532 students in 1914 and 135,065 students in 1917.

Urban literacy increased by an average of 20% between 1897 and 1913.

The increase in literacy among recruits speaks for itself.

In 1914 in Russia there were 53 teacher institutes, 208 teachers' seminaries, and 280 thousand teachers worked. More than 14 thousand students studied at pedagogical universities and seminaries of the MNP; In addition, additional pedagogical classes at women's gymnasiums graduated 15.3 thousand students in 1913 alone. The number of professionally trained teachers in primary schools also steadily increased, including in the remaining parochial schools (despite lower pay in them): by 1906, 82.8% (in single-class) and 92.4% (in two-year) professionally trained teachers, then by 1914 — already 96 and 98.7%, respectively.

In general, according to the expectations of that time, problems with population literacy and the creation of a system of universal education should have been resolved by 1921–1925. And I have no doubt that this would be the case.

Results

Thus, we see that in absolutely all parameters of economic development of the Russian Empire from the late 1880s to 1917, the country made significant progress. There is no doubt that Russia still remained behind France, Germany, England, the USA and even in some aspects from Italy and Denmark. But the trend of continuous development is obvious — this allows us to conclude that even after 1917 the country would have made progress in the economy. As for the relatively low standard of living of the majority of the population in the 1900s, Russia, in principle, almost always lagged behind the rest of Europe, just as it lagged behind the USSR and today. But in the Republic of Ingushetia we see how the income of the population grew continuously and at a rapid pace, which cannot be said about the life of Soviet people and our current long-term stagnation.

One of the factors hindering economic development was the increase in duties and protectionism. You may already be familiar with the idea that tariffs supposedly boosted domestic industry. But this is not so, because it was those industries that developed faster where there was no competition with foreign products (raw materials, processing, agriculture, handicrafts, textiles). Tariffs slowed down the development of engine manufacturing, automobile manufacturing, and aircraft manufacturing — largely because the nascent industry in these industries lacked foreign components, so necessary at the initial stage, making business in these industries unprofitable. The Tariff of 1868, for example, imposed duties on cars. In the same way, duties on cars were increased in 1891. As a result, it is in mechanical engineering that since then the growth has been the least significant and the share of imported machines is high. When adherents of protectionism always point out to us the impressive growth in the raw materials industry and agriculture, where, in general, nothing could threaten Russia even if it wanted to.

The territory of Russia in the 19th century covered a significant part of Eastern Europe, Northern Eurasia, Alaska and Transcaucasia and amounted to 18 million square kilometers. The population was constantly increasing: 1801 - 37 million people, 1825 - 53 million people, mid-19th century - 74 million people.

Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. 90% of the population was rural. The distribution of the population throughout the country was uneven - most lived in the European part. The population density was low. The population was multinational (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars, Yakuts, Mordovians, etc.) and professed different religions (Orthodoxy, Old Believers, Islam, Buddhism, Catholicism, paganism).

The population was divided into groups characteristic of feudalism, composed on the basis of origin and occupation - estates. There were six main classes:

1. –clergy- 215 thousand people - included all the ministers of the church, was considered a privileged class.

2. – nobility- the ruling class numbered 225 thousand people (0.5% of the total population), the richest and most educated class, which supplied personnel for the higher bureaucracy and army command staff. At the top of state power there were about 1,000 civil and military officials of the first four classes of the Table of Ranks. The main privilege was the monopoly ownership of land and serfs. 70% of the landowners were small-scale landowners, i.e. owned up to 21 male souls. It was divided into hereditary and personal.

3. - merchants- 119 thousand people, a semi-privileged class, were exempt from a number of taxes, conscription duties, were engaged in trade, and were divided into three guilds: the first guild had the right to conduct large-scale internal and external trade, the second guild - conducted large-scale internal trade, the third guild - conducted small-scale urban trade and county trade.

4. – philistinism- the unprivileged population of cities - artisans, hired workers, small traders. They paid taxes to the state, supplied recruits, and were not exempt from corporal punishment.

5. – peasantry- the most numerous and powerless class. It was divided into three groups:

- landed serfs(about 20 million people). The largest part of them lived in the central provinces, and the least of them were in Siberia, among the population of the northern and southern steppe provinces. The main duties are corvée (in the southern black earth provinces) and quitrent (in non-black earth provinces).

- state peasants(about 6 million people) - belonged to the treasury and were officially considered free rural inhabitants. The state provided them with land for use and collected dues and taxes.

- specific peasants(about 2 million people) - occupied an intermediate position between serfs and state peasants, belonged to the imperial family.

Among the peasantry there is a process of social stratification.

6. – Cossacks- occupied a special place in the social structure of society. This is a military-agricultural class. By the middle of the 19th century, 9 Cossack troops were created, which were engaged in protecting the southern borders of the empire - Don, Black Sea, Terek, Astrakhan, Orenburg, Ural, Siberian, Transbaikal and Amur.

A special group consisted of the small peoples of the North and Siberia. They paid yasak - a special tax in the form of fur-bearing animal skins.

The class system is gradually becoming obsolete; it is no longer possible to draw a clear boundary between classes. Classes are emerging, they are formed not on a legal, but on a purely economic property basis.

Agriculture.

Agriculture is the basis of the economy. It is developing on an extensive basis - there is an increase in sown areas, rather than the introduction of progressive technologies for cultivating the land. Productivity remains low (itself – three). There is a gradual destruction of the feudal corvee system, as the dominance of subsistence farming is undermined. Both peasant and landowner farms are increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.

A)- in non-black earth provinces, peasants are transferred to quitrent, this forces them to look for additional sources of income - crafts and otkhodnichestvo are developing.

B)- in the black earth provinces, landowners, in order to increase the production of marketable grain, cancel the quitrent and transfer the peasants to month- the peasants work only as corvee labor, and the landowners feed and clothe them; their position is close to that of plantation slaves.

IN)- market-oriented peasant crafts are developing - weaving, processing leather, wool, making clothes, tableware. Fishing villages are developing.

The pace of agricultural development was slow. The main reason is the existence of serfdom. The peasants are not interested in the results of their labor; increased exploitation does not lead to an increase in food production. Technical equipment remains at a routine level. The debt of landowners to the state increases.

Industry.

Industry was unevenly distributed throughout the state. The formation of economic regions with pronounced specialization by economic sectors is underway.

- Central industrial region– light and food industries.

- Ural- ferrous metallurgy.

- Petersburg– metalworking.

Russian industry was represented by three types of enterprises: small-scale production, manufactory and factory. The first two forms predominated, and the factory appeared relatively late - in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. At the beginning of the century, peasant crafts predominated, actively developing in the non-black earth provinces of Russia. Manufactories used the labor of serf peasants (patrimonial and possessional) and civilian workers (often the same peasants released on quitrent). The share of hired labor is increasing, its productivity is 2–4 times higher.

In the 30s of the 19th century, Russia began industrial revolution- the transition from manufactory to factory, from manual labor to machine labor. The social side - the classes of bourgeois society are formed - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. It lasted until the 80s of the 19th century. Causes: serfdom, lack of free labor and sufficient capital among domestic merchants and artisans.

In Russia, the industrial revolution had its own characteristics:

Huge role of the state.

Influence on the course of the industrial revolution of railway construction (the first railways appeared - Tsarskoselskaya, Warsaw, Nikolaevskaya).

Trade.

The internal market is being further formed. The main goods were bread, livestock products, peasant crafts, and textile products. The main trade was carried out at fairs, the number of which is constantly growing. In 1817, the most important of them, Makaryevskaya, was moved to Nizhny Novgorod and began to operate from July to August. In 1826, 76 major fairs were registered. Small shop trade predominated in the cities.

Foreign trade is actively developing. The state pursues a protectionist policy - exports prevail over imports. Bread exports have quadrupled over half a century. The main trading partners are England, Germany and France.

They took out: bread, flax, timber, furs, hemp, lard, wool, metals, cloth.

Imported: metal products, machines, fabrics, tea, wine, sugar

The main trade routes passed along rivers, and canals were built. Foreign trade went through the Black and Baltic seas.

Thus, serfdom had a huge influence on the socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. The conservative-protective policy of the autocracy protected the interests of the nobility and sought to preserve serfdom. The feudal-serf system is decomposing, but it is still quite viable, subsistence farming still prevails.

Related information.

Features of economic development of Russia in the post-reform period:

By the 80s of the 19th century, the industrial revolution in Russia was completed.

Compressed historical periods and high rates of development of Russian industry;

The huge role of the state in economic development;

Widespread attraction of foreign capital into the Russian economy;

Multistructure – preservation of feudal and early capitalist forms of exploitation;

Uneven economic development –...

Five industrial regions

Old – Central, Northwestern, Ural;

New – Donbass And Baku.

The predominance of agro-handicraft production throughout the rest of the country.

Development of agriculture in the post-reform period:

Preservation of feudal remnants:

Workouts;

The dominance of communal orders in the village;

Land scarcity of peasants;

The dominance of landownership;

The predominance of the extensive development path;

The development of capitalist (commodity-money) relations in the countryside means an increase in the marketability of agricultural production.

Vectors of agricultural development:

Prussian - drawing large estates into capitalist relations (central provinces);

American - Farmer (Siberia, steppe regions of the Volga region, the Caucasus and the North of Russia).

MODERNAZATION OF THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY

ActivityN. H. Bunge 1 ( 1881–1886 ) .

Protectionist policy (protection of the internal market):

Increase in customs duties;

Support for private joint-stock banks;

Taxation reform - the introduction of new taxes on real estate, trade, crafts, and monetary transactions.

Peasant question :

1881 – Liquidation of the temporarily obligated state of peasants and reduction of redemption payments;

1882 - Creation of a peasant bank for preferential lending to peasants;

1885 – Abolition of the poll tax;

Working question os.

1882 – Child Labor Restriction Act.

« We don’t have enough to eat, but we’ll take it out».

Vyshnegradsky

ActivityI. A. Vyshnegradsky 1 ( 1887–1892.) :

Continuation of the policy of protectionism :

1891 – Increase in customs tariffs;

Increasing indirect taxes and expanding taxation of commercial and industrial enterprises;

Strengthening the role of the state in regulating the economic activities of private enterprise;

Subordination of private railways to the state.

Achieved stability of the financial system .

Self-control tests

Alexander's Great ReformsIILiberator.

The introduction of the legal profession and the irremovability of judges, the creation of zemstvos took place during the reign of...

Alexandra I

Alexandra II

Alexandra III

Nicholas I

One of the results of the liberal reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century became...

abolition of class organization of society

creation of the Zemsky Sobor

creation of an all-class court

introduction of the constitution

According to the judicial reform of 1864 was entered...

Senate

advocacy

estate court

prosecutor's office

Zemstvos appeared in Russia during the reign of the emperor...

Alexandra II

Nicholas II

Alexandra I

Alexandra III

The creators of the theory of “Russian socialism” - the ideological basis of the populism movement - are considered...

P. Milyukov and A. Guchkov

A. Herzen and N. Chernyshevsky

N. Muravyov and P. Pestel

G. Plekhanov and V. Lenin

The peasant community was considered a “cell of socialism”...

Slavophiles

Marxists

Westerners

populists

Alexander II reigned...

In 1825–1855;

In 1855–1881;

In 1881–1894;

In 1818–1881

The transformation of Alexander II in the social sphere includes:

Introduction of city all-class self-government bodies

Permission to open educational institutions for zemstvos, public organizations and individuals

introduction of universal conscription

The transformation of Alexander II in the social sphere includes:

Introduction of city all-class self-government bodies

Permission to open educational institutions for zemstvos, public organizations and individuals

Slavery was abolished in Russia

introduction of universal conscription

The transformation of Alexander II in the social sphere includes:

Introduction of city all-class self-government bodies

Permission to open educational institutions for zemstvos, public organizations and individuals

Slavery was abolished in Russia

INimplementation of universal conscription

The reason for the war with Turkey during the reign of Alexander II was:

Russia's desire to conquer Turkey;

Turkey's desire to return Crimea;

Europe's desire to divide Turkey;

Russian support for the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples against Turkey.

Whom the Turks nicknamed “Ak Pasha” (“White General”):

Skobeleva;

Milutina;

Dragomirova;

Nikolai Nikolaevich.

Alexander II survived ____ assassination attempts:

Alexander II received the nickname:

« Peacemaker";

"Bloody";

"Liberator";

"Blessed".

Alexander's counter-reformsIIIPeacemaker.

The development of factory legislation and the attack on the reforms of Alexander II were characteristic of the reign of...

Alexandra I

Paul I

Alexandra III

Nicholas I

One of the program provisions of the “Emancipation of Labor” group, created in Geneva in 1883, was ...

establishing close ties with liberals

organization of Jewish pogroms

preparation of the socialist revolution

spread of Marxist views in Russia

Alexander III received the nickname

« Peacemaker";

"Bloody";

"Liberator";

"Blessed".

Alexander III reigned...

In 1825–1855;

In 1855–1881;

In 1881–1894;

In 1845–1894

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia moved towards rapprochement:

With France;

With England;

With Germany;

With Turkey.

Socio-political and economic development of the Russian Empire at the turn of the centuryXIX– XXcenturies.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, the privileged classes included:

Bourgeois;

Peasants;

Nobles;

Cossacks.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, the unprivileged classes included:

Bourgeois;

Peasants;

Nobles;

Cossacks.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, the semi-privileged (military) classes included:

Bourgeois;

Peasants;

Nobles;

Cossacks.

The largest class of the population of the Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries were:

Bourgeois;

Peasants;

Nobles;

Cossacks.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, new social classes began to form in the Russian Empire:

Merchants:

Workers;

Bourgeoisie;

Philistinism.

The Cabinet (Council) of Ministers in the Russian Empire is...

The State Council in the Russian Empire is...

Body for dealing with matters requiring the personal intervention of the emperor;

executive body of the Russian Empire;

legislative body in 1810-1906 and the upper house of the legislative institution in 1906-1917;

the highest state body of church-administrative power.

The Holy Synod is...

Body for dealing with matters requiring the personal intervention of the emperor;

executive body of the Russian Empire;

legislative body in 1810-1906 and the upper house of the legislative institution in 1906-1917;

the highest state body of church-administrative power.

His Imperial Majesty's own office is...

Body for dealing with matters requiring the personal intervention of the emperor;

executive body of the Russian Empire;

legislative body in 1810-1906 and the upper house of the legislative institution in 1906-1917;

the highest state body of church-administrative power.

Give a definition that most accurately reflects the essence of the concept of “Cossacks” -

population engaged in agricultural production.

a special ethnosocial group, the military class (cavalry).

a special social group of people who have a set of rights and responsibilities enshrined in law and passed on to inheritance.

a group of people who sell their labor power.

The activities of S. Yu. Witte as Minister of Finance include:

Sale of Trans-Siberian Railway to China.

The activities of N. H. Bunge as Minister of Finance include:

Introduction of gold backing of the ruble and its free conversion;

Elimination of the temporarily obliged state of peasants and reduction of redemption payments;

Subordination of private railways to the state;

Sale of Trans-Siberian Railway to China.

The activities of I. A. Vyshnegradsky as Minister of Finance include:

Introduction of gold backing of the ruble and its free conversion;

Elimination of the temporarily obliged state of peasants and reduction of redemption payments;

Subordination of private railways to the state;

Sale of Trans-Siberian Railway to China.

In the Russian Empire, the American (farmer) path of agricultural development prevailed:

Siberia, Caucasus, Trans-Volga region.

Central provinces;

Far East;

Baltics.

The industry of the Russian Empire was most developed:

In the Caucasus;

In Siberia;

In the center of the country;

In the Far East.

1 Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge (1823–1895). Statesman, economist, academician. Was born 11(23). XI.1823 year in Kyiv. Graduated from the First Kyiv Gymnasium and the Law Faculty of Kyiv University ( 1845). Master of Public Law ( 1847). Doctor of Political Sciences ( 1850). From 1845 to 1880– teaching activities. In 1880-1881- Comrade (Deputy) Minister of Finance. WITH 6. V.1881 - Manager of the Ministry of Finance. From 1.I.1882 to 31.XII.1886- Minister of Finance. 1. I.1887–3. VI.1895 - Chairman of the Committee of Ministers and member of the State Council. From 10.XII.1892- Vice-Chairman of the Siberian Railway Committee. Died 3(15). VI.1895 year in Tsarskoe Selo.

1 Ivan Alekseevich Vyshnegradsky (1831(1832)–1895. ). Russian scientist (specialist in the field of mechanics) and statesman. Founder of the theory of automatic control, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences ( 1888). Minister of Finance ( 1887–1892). From the clergy. Was born 20. XII.1831 (1. I.1832) years in the village of Vyshny Volochyok. Studied at the Tver Theological Seminary ( 1843-1845). Graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg ( 1851). Master of Mathematical Sciences ( 1854). In 1860–1862 border. Since 1851- in teaching. Since 1869– private entrepreneurial activity. Died 25. III(6. IV).1895 in St. Petersburg.

First half of the 19th century was a turning point in Russian history in many respects. By the beginning of this era, Russia, having successfully solved many of the domestic and foreign policy problems facing it, became a powerful power. Its borders covered vast areas of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, also capturing part of North America. The expansion of the territory continued during the period under review. The population growth trend was equally stable: 18 million people in 1747, 36 million in 1796, 74 million in the middle of the 19th century.

Agriculture

Meanwhile, serfdom, which was the basis of the Russian economy after rapid growth at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. gradually fell into a period of prolonged and, essentially, hopeless stagnation under the given conditions. Patriarchal forms of serf labor no longer corresponded to the changed social conditions: serf labor was unproductive and unprofitable. Landowner farms were almost without income and fell into debt, especially in lean years, when landowners were forced to feed their hungry peasants. The mass of noble estates was mortgaged to state lending institutions; It is believed that by the end of the reign of Nicholas I, more than half of the serfs (7 out of 11 million male serfs) were pledged. The natural way out of such debt was the final cession of the mortgaged land and peasants to the state, which was what some landowners were thinking about. Added to the economic difficulties of the landowners was the fear of peasant unrest and unrest. Although during the reign of Emperor Nicholas there were no riots like Pugachev’s, the peasants were worried often and in many places. The expectation of the end of serfdom penetrated into their masses and excited them. All life developed in such a way that it led to the abolition of serfdom. The individual successes of the serf economy did not change the general state of affairs (since the late 1840s, grain exports sharply increased due to the abolition of restrictions on grain imports in Great Britain.

The government, in principle advocating the abolition of serfdom, did not seek to force its abolition, leaving everything to the good will of the landowners. Thus, in 1842, a decree on obligated peasants was issued; in 1844, landowners were allowed to free serfs without land by mutual consent. At the same time, in 1847, peasants received the right to buy out their freedom if the owner’s estate was put up for sale for debts, and in 1848, serfs were granted the right to buy back uninhabited lands and buildings (with the consent of the owner).

In 1844 - 1848 In the provinces of Right Bank Ukraine (Kiev General Government), an inventory reform is being carried out - the only reform of the Nicholas era that was mandatory for the local nobility. The authorship and initiative to carry out the reform belongs to the Kyiv Governor-General (later Minister of Internal Affairs) General Dmitry Gavrilovich Bibikov. The so-called “inventory rules” regulated the maximum limit of corvee (no more than three days a week, and for a number of categories - no more than 2 days). By introducing inventory rules, the government sought to weaken the influence of local landowners, mainly of Polish origin, to support Ukrainian peasants, who were supposed to become its support in the region, and also to prevent their landlessness. The rules caused extreme discontent among landowners, who were forbidden to reduce peasant plots and change duties. There are known cases of violation of inventory rules, although the law provided for this to be brought before a military court. However, the government failed to turn the local peasantry into its reliable support. Their performances not only did not decrease, but even increased somewhat. Thus, in 1848, over half of all peasant uprisings took place in the western provinces. At the end of the 1850s. inventory rules were extended to all provinces of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Lithuania and Belarus). The introduction of inventory rules certainly pushed landowners to abolish serfdom, and their introduction throughout Russia would undoubtedly push the process of transformation in this area. However, the government did not even think about this.

Industry

In industry, the process of slowly replacing serf industry with civilian labor continued. Ural factories, which were the stronghold of serfdom in industry since the end of the 18th century. were experiencing a protracted crisis (in the 19th century, Russia turned from a country that exported metal into a self-importer), while the light (primarily textile) industry, where civilian labor developed primarily, was experiencing rapid growth, which was greatly facilitated by new customs tariffs (see . below). The rapid development of the textile industry was also facilitated by the constant reduction in the cost of semi-finished products - yarn imported from England. At the same time, in the textile industry there was a process of displacement of small and medium-sized factories and their absorption by large enterprises capable of carrying out expensive technical re-equipment. However, at the same time, handicraft production of the cheapest types of fabric grew rapidly. By the end of the 20s. XIX century Russia almost completely stops importing chintz from abroad. The government realized the doom of serf manufactories, but the relative cheapness and high qualifications of the serf labor force restrained the transition to new principles of organizing production in state-owned manufactories. Meanwhile, in 1840, a law was passed allowing factory owners to free serf workers. This allowed some of them to switch to civilian labor.

In the 1840s. In Russia, the industrial revolution begins (the transition from manual production to machine production), which in Europe was largely completed in the 1760s - 1780s. Russia's belated entry into the industrial era and the slow implementation of the industrial revolution led to the country's economic backwardness and technological dependence on the West.

Transport

The weakness of Russia, which hampered its economic development, was the backwardness and underdevelopment of communications. As before, as in the 18th century. The bulk of cargo went along inland waterways. The state attached great importance to improving the latter. So, back in 1808-1811. the Mariinsk and Tikhvin canal systems were created connecting the Upper Volga with the Baltic Sea and St. Petersburg, the Dnieper-Bug water system (in 1814 - 1848), connecting the Dnieper basin with Poland and the Baltic, the Berezinsk water system, connecting the Dnieper and Western Dvina and other waterways. Under Nicholas I in 1825 - 1828), the Duke of Württemberg Canal was built, connecting the Volga and Northern Dvina (i.e. Arkhangelsk). Almost all of these waterways remain important to this day. At the beginning of the 19th century. The first steamships also appeared (in 1815, the steamship Elizaveta was launched at the Berda plant in St. Petersburg). By the end of Nicholas's reign, steamships were already gaining significant popularity, although their number significantly lags behind foreign ships and the predominant importance on inland waterways is still retained by barge haulers.

Land routes of communication after the Patriotic War are also beginning to be put in order. In 1817, construction of paved highways began. By 1825 their length was 390 km, and by 1850 - 3300 km. In the Nikolaev era, railway transport appeared in Russia, which became in the second half of the 20th century. leader in cargo transportation volume. The government was initially extremely cautious about the idea of ​​​​creating railways. Only in the 30s. XIX century under the influence of the successes of the railway business in other countries (in England, railways had been in operation since 1825), a decision was made to create the Tsarskoye Selo railway from St. Petersburg to Pavlovsk, with a length of approx. 27 km. This line, of course, did not have any serious economic significance and served only as a kind of testing ground. In 1839 - 1845 traffic was opened on the Warsaw-Vienna Railway, connecting the Kingdom of Poland with the European railway network. In 1842 - 1851 The Nikolaev railway was built, connecting the two capitals (650 km) over the shortest distance (exceeding it by only 12 km). The first train went from Moscow to St. Petersburg at 21 hours and 15 minutes. In 1851, construction of the St. Petersburg-Warsaw Railway began (completed in 1862). The total length of the empire's railways by 1855 was 1044 km.

The first use of such a fundamentally new means of communication as the telegraph dates back to the time of Nicholas (the first line connected St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo in 1843).

Trade and finance

Nicholas I inherited from Alexander a great disorder in financial affairs. The fight against Napoleon and the continental blockade shook the Russian economy. Increased issues of banknotes were then the only means of covering the deficits that depressed the budget from year to year. Over the course of ten years (1807-1816), more than 500 million rubles of paper money were put into circulation. It is no wonder that the exchange rate of the paper ruble fell extremely during this time: from 54 kopecks it reached 20 kopecks in silver and only by the end of Alexander’s reign it rose slightly (to 25 kopecks). The custom of double counting money has long been established in Russia: for silver and banknotes, with one ruble worth approximately 4 banknotes. This led to many inconveniences. When making payments, sellers and buyers agreed on what kind of money (coins or pieces of paper) to make the payment; at the same time, they themselves set the “exchange rate” and the more cunning often deceived the less shrewd. So, for example, in 1830 in Moscow, a ruble in large silver was valued at 4 rubles in banknotes, a ruble in small silver was valued at 4 rubles. 20 kopecks banknotes, and for a ruble in copper they gave 1 ruble 20 kopecks for banknotes. With such confusion, people who were poor and had little understanding of monetary calculations suffered losses on every transaction and purchase. There was no stable exchange rate in the state; the government itself could not establish it. The government's attempts to reduce the number of appropriations did not lead to good results. In the last years of Alexander, banknotes worth 240 million rubles were destroyed, but there were still 600 million left and their value did not rise at all. Other measures were needed.

The Minister of Finance under Emperor Nicholas was the learned financier General Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin, known for his frugality and skillful management. He managed to accumulate a significant reserve of gold and silver in the state treasury, with which he could decide to destroy depreciated banknotes and replace them with new banknotes. In addition to random favorable circumstances (large mining of gold and silver), the formation of metal reserves was helped by the “deposit notes” and “series” issued by Kankrin. A special depository office accepted gold and silver in coins from individuals and issued depositors with safe receipts, “deposit tickets,” which could circulate as money and were exchanged for silver 1:1. Combining all the conveniences of paper money with the dignity of metal ones, the deposits were a great success and attracted a lot of gold and silver to the depository office. The “series” had the same success, that is, notes from the state treasury, which brought the owner a small percentage and circulated like money, with easy exchange for silver. Deposits and series, delivering a valuable metal fund to the treasury , at the same time they accustomed the people to new types of paper banknotes that had the same value as a silver coin.

The measures necessary to destroy banknotes were the subject of a long discussion, in which Speransky also took an active part. In 1839, it was decided to declare the silver ruble as a monetary unit and consider it “the legal measure of all money circulating in the state.” In relation to this ruble, a constant and mandatory rate of banknotes was legalized at the rate of 350 rubles in banknotes for 100 rubles in silver. then (in 1843) a ransom was made at this rate to the treasury of all banknotes with their exchange for silver coins or for new “credit notes”, which were exchanged for silver already 1: 1. The metal reserve was necessary in order to to make this redemption of banknotes and to be able to support the exchange of new banknotes.With the destruction of banknotes, monetary circulation in the state came into order: silver and gold coins and paper money equivalent to this coin were in use.

1819 New very liberal customs tariffs. Almost complete restoration of “free trade”.

1822 Return to protectionism. These, in fact, prohibitive tariffs were in effect (with some mitigation) until 1857. This contributed to the rapid rise of the textile industry (manufactures in Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Orekhovo-Zuevo, Moscow and other cities). Customs income increased 2.5 times, making it one of the largest revenue items in the budget.

1832 Establishment of a customs border between Poland and the rest of the empire (existed until 1851).