Mechanisms of hormone action. General characteristics of hormones Biochemistry hormone structure

The date: 08.03.2020

Hormones are biologically active substances that are synthesized in small quantities in the specialized cells of the endocrine system and through circulating fluids (for example, blood) are delivered to target cells, where they provide their regulatory effect. Hormones, like other signaling molecules, possess some common properties. distinguished from the producing cells into extracellular space; are not structural components of cells and not ...

Hormones affect target cells. The target cells are cells that specifically interact with hormones with special receptor proteins. These receptor proteins are located on the outer membrane of the cell, or in cytoplasm, or on the nuclear membrane and on other cell phone cells. Biochemical mechanisms of signal transmission from hormone to target cell. Any protein receptor consists, minimum of two domains (plots) that provide ...

The structure of hormones is different. Currently, about 160 different hormones from different multicellular organisms are also described. By chemical structure, hormones can be classified in three classes: protein-peptide hormones; derivatives of amino acids; Steroid hormones. The first class includes hypothalamus and pituitary hormones (peptides and some proteins are synthesized in these glands), as well as pancreatic hormones and parathyroidism ...

The endocrine system is a set of internal secretion glands and some specialized endocrine cells in the composition of tissues for which the endocrine function is not the only one (for example, the pancreas has not only endocrine, but also by exocrine functions). Any hormone is one of its participants and manages certain metabolic reactions. At the same time, inside the endocrine system there are levels of regulation - one ...

Protekovo peptide hormones. In the process of the formation of protein and peptide hormones in the cells of the endocrine glands, the formation of a polypeptide that does not have hormonal activity occurs. But such a molecule in its composition has a fragment (s) containing (e) the amino acid sequence of this hormone. Such a protein molecule is called pre-pro-hormone and has an in its composition (usually at the N-terminus) a structure called a leader or signal sequence (pre-). This ...

The transport of hormones is determined by their solubility. Hormones having a hydrophilic nature (for example, protein-peptide hormones) are usually transported in free form. Steroid hormones, yod-containing thyroid hormones are transported in the form of complexes with plasma proteins. These can be specific transport proteins (transport low molecular weight globulines, thyroxins-binding protein; transportation of corticosteroids protein transcortin) and non-specific transport (albumin). Already mentioned ...

Belkovo-peptide hormones are subjected to proteolysis, disintegrated to individual amino acids. These amino acids enter further in the demination reaction, decarboxylation, transamination and disintegrate to finite products: NH3, CO2 and H2O. Hormones are subjected to oxidative deamination and further oxidation to CO2 and H2O. Steroid hormones disintegrate otherwise. There are no enzyme systems in the body that would ensure their decay. Basically happens ...

1. General properties of hormones Hormones are biologically active substances that are synthesized in small quantities in the specialized cells of the endocrine system and through circulating fluids (for example, blood) are delivered to target cells, where they provide their regulatory effect.
Hormones, like other signaling molecules, possess some common properties.
1) are allocated from the producing cells into the extracellular space;
2) are not structural components of cells and are not used as a source of energy;
3) are able to specifically interact with cells having receptors for this hormone;
4) have very high biological activity - effectively act on cells in very low concentrations (about 10 -6 -10 -11 mol / l).

2. Mechanisms of hormone action Hormones affect target cells.
The target cells are cells that specifically interact with hormones with special receptor proteins. These receptor proteins are located on the outer membrane of the cell, or in cytoplasm, or on the nuclear membrane and on other cell phone cells.
Biochemical mechanisms of signal transmission from hormone to target cell.
Any receptor protein consists, minimum of two domains (sites), which ensure the execution of two functions:
1) Hormone recognition;
2) Transformation and transmission of the resulting signal into a cell.
How does the receptor protein recognizes the hormone molecule with which he can interact with?
One of the domains of the protein receptor has a portion in its composition, a complementary one part of the signal molecule. The process of binding a receptor with a signal molecule is similar to the process of forming an enzyme-substrate complex and the magnitude of the affinity constant can be determined.
Most receptors are not studied enough, because their selection and purification are very complex, and the content of each type of receptors in the cells is very low. But it is known that hormones interact with their physico-chemical receptors. Elektostatic and hydrophobic interactions are formed between the hormone molecule and the receptor. When binding a receptor with a hormone, conformational changes in the receptor protein and a set of a signaling molecule with a protein-receptor are activated. In accordance with the actual state, it can cause specific intracellular reactions in response to the received signal. If the synthesis or the ability of protein-receptor can bind to signal molecules, diseases occur - endocrine disorders. There are three types of such diseases.
1. Connected synthesis of protein-receptor synthesis.
2. Associated with the change in the structure of the receptor - genetic defects.
3. Related by blocking protein-receptor antibodies.

The mechanisms of the action of hormones on target cells, depending on the structure of the hormone, there are two types of interaction. If the lipophilic hormone molecule (for example, steroid hormones), then it can penetrate through the lipid layer of the outer membrane of target cells. If the molecule has large dimensions or is polar, then its penetration is impossible inside the cell. Therefore, for lipophilic hormones, the receptors are inside the target cells, and for hydrophilic - receptors are in the outer membrane.
To obtain a cellular response to a hormonal signal in the case of hydrophilic molecules, an intracellular signal transmission mechanism operates. This happens with the participation of substances, which is called the second intermediaries. Hormone molecules are very diverse in shape, and "second intermediaries" - no.
The reliability of the signal transmission provides a very high skil affinity to its receptor protein.
What is intermediaries who participate in intracellular gear of humoral signals?
These are cyclic nucleotides (CAMF and CGMF), inositatrimphosphate, calcium-binding protein - calmodulin, calcium ions, enzymes involved in the synthesis of cyclic nucleotides, as well as protein kinases - protein phosphorylation enzymes. All these substances are involved in the regulation of the activity of individual enzyme systems in target cells.
We will analyze in more detail mechanisms of action of hormones and intracellular intermediaries. There are two main ways to transmit a signal in target cells from signal molecules with a membrane mechanism of action:
1) adenylate cyclase (or guanillates) system;
2) phosphoinositid mechanism.
Adenylate cyclase system.
The main components: a membrane receptor-receptor, G-protein, adenylate cyclase enzyme, guanosintriffosphate, protein kinase.
In addition, for the normal functioning of the adenylate cyclase system, ATP is required.
Protein-receptor, G-protein, next to which gtf and enzyme (adenylate cyclase) are built into the cell membrane.
Prior to the moment of the hormone, these components are in the dissociated state, and after the formation of a set of a signaling molecule with a protein-receptor, changes in the conformation of the G-protein occur. As a result, one of the G-protein subunits acquires the ability to communicate with GTF.
The G-protein-GTF complex activates adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase begins to actively turn the ATP molecules in the C-AMP.
c-AMP has the ability to activate special enzymes - protein kinases that catalyze the reactions of phosphorylation of various proteins involving ATP. At the same time, the protein molecules include phosphoric acid residues. The main result of this phosphorylation process is the change in the activity of phosphorylated protein. In various types of cell phosphorylation cells, proteins with different functional activity are exposed as a result of activation of the adenylate-cyclase system. For example, it may be enzymes, nuclear proteins, membrane proteins. As a result of the phosphorylation reaction, proteins may become functionally active or inactive.
Such processes will lead to changes in the rate of biochemical processes in a target cell.
Activation of adenylate cyclase systum lasts a very short time, because the G-protein after binding to adenylate cyclase begins to exhibit GTF-agenic activity. After hydrolysis, GTF G-protein restores its conformation and ceases to activate adenylate cyclase. As a result, the reaction of the formation of the CAMF is terminated.
In addition to participants in the adenylate cyclase system in some target cells, there are proteins-receptors associated with G-proteins, which lead to the braking of adenylate cyclase. At the same time, the complex "GTP-G-protein" inhibits adenylate cyclase.
When the formation of the CAMF is stopped, the phosphorylation reaction in the cell is not terminated immediately: so far Molecules of the CAMF continue to exist - the activation process of protein kinases will continue. In order to stop the action of the CAMF, in the cells there is a special enzyme - phosphodiesterase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis reaction 3 ", 5" cyclo-AMP to AMP.
Some substances with an inhibitory effect on phosphodiesterase (for example, caffeine alkaloids, theophylline), contribute to the preservation and increase in the concentration of the AMF cycle in the cell. Under the action of these substances in the body, the duration of activation of the adenylate cyclase system becomes greater, i.e., the action of the hormone is enhanced.
In addition to adenylate cyclase or guanillatcyclase systems, there is also a mechanism for transmitting information inside the target cell with the participation of calcium ions and inosiphosphate.
Inositatriphosphate is a substance that is a derivative of complex lipid - inositphosphatide. It is formed as a result of the action of a special enzyme - phospholipase "C", which is activated as a result of conformational changes in the intracellular domain of the membrane-protein-receptor.
This enzyme hydrolyzes phosphoether communication in the phosphatidyl-inositol-4,5-bisphosphate molecule and the resulting diacylglycerin and inositatriphosphate are formed.
It is known that the formation of diacylglycerin and inositrimphosphate leads to an increase in the concentration of ionized calcium inside the cell. This leads to the activation of many calcium-dependent proteins inside the cell, including various protein kinases activate. And here, as in the activation of the adenylate cyclase system, one of the signal transmission stages inside the cell is phosphorylation of proteins, which in the physiological response of the hormone cell.
In the work of the phosphoinositid mechanism for the transmission of signals in the target cell participates a special calcium-binding protein - calmodulin. This is a low molecular weight protein (17 kDa), by a 30% composed of negatively charged amino acids (depth, ASP) and therefore capable of actively binding sa +2. One calmodulin molecule has 4 calcium-binding plots. After interaction with Ca +2, conformational changes occur the calmodulin molecule and the CA +2-Calmoduline complex becomes able to adjust the activity (alto-altogether, or activate or activate), many enzymes - adenylate cyclase, phosphodiesterase, Ca +2, Mg +2 -ATPase and various protein kinases.
In different cells, when exposed to the "Ca + Calmodululin" complex on the isoenzymes of the same enzyme (for example, an activation of adenylate cyclase) in some cases, activation is observed, and in others - inhibiting the reaction of the formation of the CAMF. Such different effects occur because allosteric centers of isopheresions may include various amino acid radicals and their response to the Ca +2 Calmoduline complex will be different.
Thus, in the role of "second intermediaries" to transmit signals from hormones in target cells.
1) cyclic nucleotides (C-AMP and C-GMF);
2) SA ions;
3) complex "sa-calmodulin";
4) diacylglycerin;
5) inositatrimphosphate.
Mechanisms for transferring information from hormones inside target cells using listed intermediaries have shafts:
1) one of the steps of signal transmission is phosphorylation of proteins;
2) Termination of activation occurs as a result of special mechanisms initiated by the participants in the processes itself, there are negative feedback mechanisms.
The hormones are the main humoral regulators of the physiological functions of the body, and their properties are currently well known, biosynthesis processes and action mechanisms.
Signs for which hormones differ from other signal molecules are as follows.
1. The synthesis of hormones occurs in special cells of the endocrine system. In this case, the synthesis of hormones is the main function of endocrine cells.
2. The hormones are secreted into the blood, more often in venous, sometimes in lymph. Other signaling molecules can reach target cells without secretion into circulating fluids.
3. Telephine effect (or distant action) - hormones act on target cells in a hormone distance from the place of synthesis.
Hormones are highly specific substances in relation to target cells and have very high biological activity.
3. Chemical hormone structure The structure of hormones is different. Currently, about 160 different hormones from different multicellular organisms are also described. By chemical structure, hormones can be classified in three classes:
1) protein-peptide hormones;
2) derivatives of amino acids;
3) Steroid hormones.
The first class includes hypothalamus and pituitary hormones (peptides and some proteins are synthesized in these glands), as well as the hormones of the pancreas and parachitoid glands and one of the thyroid hormones.
The second class includes amines that are synthesized in the brain layer of adrenal glands and in epiphyshes, as well as iodine-containing thyroid hormones.
The third class is steroid hormones that are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and in the germ. By the number of carbon atoms, steroids differ from each other:
From 21 - hormones of adrenal cortex and progesterone;
From 19 - men's sex hormones - androgens and testosterone;
From 18 - female sex hormones - estrogens.
Common for all steroids is the presence of a sterane nucleus.
4. Endocrine System Action Mechanisms The endocrine system is a set of internal secretion glands and some specialized endocrine cells in the composition of tissues for which the endocrine function is not the only one (for example, the pancreas has not only endocrine, but also by exocrine functions). Any hormone is one of its participants and manages certain metabolic reactions. At the same time, there are regulation levels inside the endocrine system - the glands have the ability to manage others.

The overall implementation scheme of endocrine functions in the body This scheme includes the highest levels of regulation in the endocrine system - hypothalamus and hypophysis that produce hormones that themselves affect the synthesis and secretion of other endocrine cells.
From the same scheme, it can be seen that the rate of synthesis and secretion of hormones may vary also under the action of hormones from other glands or as a result of stimulation by non-membrane metabolites.
We also see also the presence of negative feedback (-) - inhibition of synthesis and (or) secretion after eliminating the primary factor, which caused the acceleration of the hormone products.
As a result, the content of the hormone in the blood is maintained at a certain level, which depends on the functional state of the body.
In addition, the body usually creates a small reserve of individual hormones in the blood (it is not visible on the represented scheme). The existence of such a reserve is possible because in the blood, many hormones are in associated with special transport proteins. For example, thyroxine is associated with thyroxin-binding globulin, and glucocorticosteroids with protein transcertine. Two forms of such hormones - associated with transport proteins and free - are in the blood in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
This means that during the destruction of the free forms of such hormones, the dissociation of the associated form and the concentration of hormone in the blood will be maintained at a relatively constant level. Thus, a complex of any hormone with transport protein can be considered as a reserve of this hormone in the body.

Effects that are observed in target cells under the influence of hormones are very important that hormones do not cause any new-scale reactions in the target cell. They only form a complex with a protein receptor. As a result of the transfer of the hormonal signal in the target cell, it is turned on or off cell reactions that provide a cellular response.
At the same time, the following main effects may be observed in the target cell:
1) change in the rate of biosynthesis of individual proteins (including proteins-enzymes);
2) the change in the activity of already existing enzymes (for example, as a result of phosphorylation - as already shown on the example of the adenylate cyclase system;
3) change in the permeability of membranes in target cells for individual substances or ions (for example, for Ca +2).
It has already been said about the mechanisms of recognition of hormones - a hormone interacts with the target cell only in the presence of a special receptor protein. The binding of the hormone with the receptor depends on the physicochemical parameters of the medium - on the pH and the concentration of various ions.
The number of protein-receptor molecules on the outer membrane or inside the target cell is of particular importance. It varies depending on the physiological state of the body, with diseases or under the influence of drugs. And this means that under different conditions and the reaction of the target cell on the hormone will be different.
Different hormones have various physicochemical properties and the location of receptors for certain hormones depends on this. It is customary to distinguish between the two mechanism of interaction of hormones with target cells:
1) the membrane mechanism - when the hormone binds to the receptor on the surface of the outer membrane of the target cell;
2) intracellular mechanism - when the receptor for the hormone is inside the cell, i.e. in cytoplasm or at intracellular membranes.
Hormones with a membrane mechanism of action:
1) All protein and peptide hormones, as well as amines (adrenaline, norepinephrine).
The intracellular mechanism of action possess:
1) Steroid hormones and amino acid derivatives - thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
The transfer of a hormonal signal to cellular structures occurs according to one of the mechanisms. For example, through an adenylate cyclase system or with the participation of CA +2 and phosphoinositides. This is true for all hormones with a membrane action mechanism. But steroid hormones with an intracellular mechanism of action, which usually adjust the rate of biosynthesis of proteins and have a receptor on the surface of the target cell nucleus, do not need additional intermediaries in the cell.

Features of the structure of protein receptors for steroids The most studied is the receptor for hormones of the adrenal cortex - glucocorticosteroids (GKS). In this protein there are three functional sections:
1 - for binding to hormone (C-terminal);
2 - for binding to DNA (central);
3 - antigenic portion, at the same time capable of modulating the promoter function during transcription (N-terminal).
The functions of each site of such a receptor are clear from their names Obviously, the structure of the receptor for steroids allows them to affect the transcription rate in the cell. This is confirmed by the fact that under the action of steroid hormones is elected (or inhibits) the biosynthesis of some proteins in the cell. In this case, there is an acceleration (or deceleration) of the formation of mRNA. As a result, the amount of synthesized molecules of certain proteins (often - enzymes) changes and the rate of metabolic processes changes.

5. Biosynthesis and secretion of hormones of various buildings Protekovo peptide hormones. In the process of the formation of protein and peptide hormones in the cells of the endocrine glands, the formation of a polypeptide that does not have hormonal activity occurs. But such a molecule in its composition has a fragment (s) containing (e) the amino acid sequence of this hormone. Such a protein molecule is called pre-pro-hormone and has an in its composition (usually at the N-terminus) a structure called a leader or signal sequence (pre-). This structure is represented by hydrophobic radicals and is needed to pass this molecule from ribosomes through lipid layers of membranes inside the endoplasmic reticulum tanks (EPR). At the same time, during the transition of the molecule through the membrane, as a result of limited proteolysis, the leader (pre-) sequence is cleaved and processed inside the EPR. Then, through the EPR system, turnmon is transported to the Golgi complex and the ripening of the hormone ends. Again, as a result of hydrolysis under the action of specific proteinases, the remaining (N-terminal) fragment (pro-section) is cleaved (N-terminal). The formed hormone molecule, which has specific biological activity enters secretory bubbles and accumulates until secretion.
In the synthesis of hormones from the number of complex glycoprotein proteins (for example, the follicular-suiting (FSH) or thyrotropic (TSH) pituitary hormones) during the ripening process, the carbohydrate component is turned on into the hormone structure.
Can occur also a non-commotional synthesis. This is so synthesized by Tyrolyiberin Tripeptide (hypothalamus hormone).
Hormones - derivatives of amino acids. The hormones of the brain layer of adrenaline adrenaline and noreproynalin, as well as the yod-containing hormones of the thyroid gland are synthesized from tyrosine. During the synthesis of adrenaline and norepinenenal, tyrosine is subjected to hydroxylation, decarboxylation and methylation with the participation of the active form of the amino acid of methionine.
In the thyroid gland, the synthesis of iodine-containing hormones triiodothyronine and thyroxine (tetraiiodinine) occurs. During the synthesis, the phenolic tyrosine phenolic group occurs. Of particular interest is the metabolism of the iodine in the thyroid gland. Molecule of glycoprotein Thyroglobulin (TG) has a molecular weight of more than 650 kDa. At the same time, in the composition of the TG molecule about 10% of the mass - carbohydrates and up to 1% - iodine. It depends on the amount of iodine in food. In TG polypeptide - 115 tyrosine residues, which are encroached with a special enzyme - thyroperoxidase - iodine. This reaction is called the organization of iodine and occurs in the follicles of the thyroid gland. As a result, mono- and di-odethyrosine are formed from tyrosine residues. Of these, approximately 30% of the residues as a result of condensation can be carried out in three and tetra-omnodththnins. Condensation and ionization go with the participation of the same enzyme - thyroperoxidase. Further ripening of the thyroid hormones occurs in glandular cells - TG is absorbed by cells by endocytosis and a secondary leasehouse is formed as a result of the fusion of lysosomes with an absorbed protein of TG.
The proteolytic enzymes of lysosomes provide hydrolysis of TG and the formation of T 3 and T 4, which are released into extracellular space. And mono- and diaidthyrosine are deemed using a special deiodinase and iodine enzyme repeatedly be subject to the organizing. For the synthesis of thyroid hormones, the mechanism of braking secretion in the type of negative feedback (T 3 and T 4 is oppressed by the selection of TSH).

Steroid hormones steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol (27 carbon atoms), and cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-koa.
Cholesterol turns into steroid hormones as a result of the following reactions:
1) cleavage of lateral radical;
2) the formation of additional lateral radicals as a result of the hydroxylation reaction with the help of special monooxygenase enzymes (hydroxylase) - most often in the 11th, 17th, and 21st positions (sometimes in 18th). At the first stage of the synthesis of steroid hormones, predecessors (pregrienolone and progesterone) are first formed, and then other hormones (cortisol, aldosterone, sex hormones). Aldosterone, mineralocorticoids can be formed from corticosteroids.

The secretion of hormones is regulated by the CNS. Synthesized hormones accumulate in secretory granules. Under the influence of nervous pulses or under the influence of signals from other endocrine glands (trop hormones) as a result of exocytosis, degranulation and yield of hormone in the blood occurs.
The regulation mechanisms were generally presented in the scheme of the mechanism for implementing an endocrine function.

6. Transport Gormonov The transport of hormones is determined by their solubility. Hormones having a hydrophilic nature (for example, protein-peptide hormones) are usually transported in free form. Steroid hormones, yod-containing thyroid hormones are transported in the form of complexes with plasma proteins. These can be specific transport proteins (transport low molecular weight globulines, thyroxins-binding protein; transportation of corticosteroids protein transcortin) and non-specific transport (albumin).
It has already been said that the concentration of hormones in the bloodstream is very low. And it can change according to the physiological state of the body. When a decrease in the content of individual hormones, a state is developing characterized as the pituitary gland. And, on the contrary, the increase in hormone content is hyperfunction.
The constancy of the concentration of hormones in the blood is also ensured by the process of catabolism hormones.
7. Catabolism Gormonov Belkovo-peptide hormones are subjected to proteolysis, disintegrated to individual amino acids. These amino acids enter further in the reaction of deamination, decarboxylation, transamination and disintegrated to finite products: NH 3, CO 2 and H 2 O.
The hormones are subjected to oxidative deamination and further oxidation to CO 2 and H 2 O. Steroid hormones disintegrate otherwise. There are no enzyme systems in the body that would ensure their decay.
Basically, the modification of lateral radicals occurs. Additional hydroxyl groups are introduced. Hormones become more hydrophilic. Molecules are formed, which are the structure of stenean, in which a keto group is located in the 17th position. In this form, catabolic products of steroid genital hormones are displayed with urine and called 17-ketosteroids. The determination of their quantity in the urine and blood shows the content in the body of sex hormones.

The human body exists as a whole thanks to the internal relationship system, which ensures the transfer of information from one cell to another in the same tissue or between different tissues. Without this system, it is impossible to maintain homeostasis. Three systems are involved in the transmission of information between cells in multicellular living organisms: the central nervous system (CNS), an endocrine system (internal secretion gland) and the immune system.

Methods for transferring information in all named systems - chemical. Intermediaries when transferring information can be signal molecules.

Such signal molecules include four groups of substances: endogenous biologically active substances (mediators of immune response, growth factors, etc.), neurotransmitters, antibodies (immunoglobulins) and hormones.

B and about x and m and i g o r m o n o in

Hormones, like other signaling molecules, possess some common properties.

General properties of hormones.

1) are allocated from the producing cells into the extracellular space;

2) are not structural cell components and are not used as a source of energy.

3) are able to specifically interact with cells having receptors for this hormone.

4) have very high biological activity - effectively act on cells in very low concentrations (about 10 -6 - 10 -11 mol / l).

Mechanisms of hormone action.

Hormones affect target cells.

The target cells are cells that specifically interact with hormones with special receptor proteins. These receptor proteins are located on the outer membrane of the cell, or in cytoplasm, or on the nuclear membrane and on other cell phone cells.

Biochemical mechanisms of signal transmission from hormone to target cell.

Any receptor protein consists, minimum of two domains (sites), which ensure the execution of two functions:

- "recognition" of hormone;

Transformation and transmission of the resulting signal into a cell.

How does the receptor protein recognizes the hormone molecule with which he can interact with?

One of the domains of the protein receptor has a portion in its composition, a complementary one part of the signal molecule. The process of binding a receptor with a signal molecule is similar to the process of forming an enzyme-substrate complex and the magnitude of the affinity constant can be determined.

Most receptors are not studied enough, because their selection and purification are very complex, and the content of each type of receptors in the cells is very low. But it is known that hormones interact with their physico-chemical receptors. Elektostatic and hydrophobic interactions are formed between the hormone molecule and the receptor. When binding a receptor with a hormone, conformational changes in the receptor protein and a set of a signaling molecule with a protein-receptor are activated. In accordance with the actual state, it can cause specific intracellular reactions in response to the received signal. If the synthesis or the ability of protein-receptor can bind to signal molecules, diseases occur - endocrine disorders. There are three types of diseases:

1. Connected synthesis of protein-receptor synthesis.

2. Associated with the change in the structure of the receptor - genetic defects.

3. Related by blocking protein-receptor antibodies.

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Biochemistry Gormonov

Introduction

Hormones - organic biological substances produced in endocrine glands or cells transported by blood and providing regulatory effect on metabolic processes and physiological functions.

Hormones are primary intermediaries between the central nervous system and tissue processes. The term hormones of 1905 introduced scientists Baileys and Starling. The endocrine glands include hypothalamus, pituitary gland, epiphysis, thymus, thyroid gland, parachite gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gender glands and diffuse neuroendocrine system. There is no unified principle of hormone nomenclature. They are called at the place of education (insulin from Insula-island), according to the physiological effect (Vasopressin), the hormones of the front lobe of the pituitary gland have the ending - tropkin, the ending - liberin and - Statin indicates hypothalamic hormones.

1. Classification of hormones in their chemical nature

In the chemical nature, hormones are divided into 3 groups.

I. Belkovo-peptide hormones.

a) Simple proteins (somatotropin, insulin)

b) peptides (corticotropin, melanotropin, calcitonin)

c) complex proteins (more often glycoproteins - thyrotropin, gonadotropin)

II. Hormones - derivatives of individual amino acids (thyroxine, adrenaline)

III. Steroid hormones (cholesterol derivatives - corticosteroids, androgens, estrogens)

The chemical nature of hormones determines the features of their metabolism.

2. Exchange Gormonov

Synthesis of hormones. Protein hormones are synthesized according to the laws of broadcast. Hormones - derivatives of amino acids are synthesized by chemical modification of amino acids. Steroid hormones are formed by chemical modification of cholesterol. Some hormones are synthesized in active form (adrenaline), others are synthesized as inactive precursors (predevelopment). Some hormones can be activated outside the endocrine gland. For example, testosterone in the prostate gland goes into a more active dihydrotestosterone. The synthesis of most hormones is regulated on the principle of feedback (author-up)

Under the action of CNS pulses in the hypothalamus, liberins (corticoliberine, thyaroliberine, somatolyberine, prolacticheliberin, gonadoliberine) are synthesized, which activate the function of the front lobe of the pituitary gland, and the statins that hovering the function of the front lobe of the pituitary gland (somatostatin, prolacttostatin, melanostatatin). Liberins and statins regulate the production of trop hormones of the front lobe of the pituitary gland. The tropins of the front lobe of the pituitary gland, in turn, activate the function of peripheral endocrine glands, which produce the corresponding hormones. The high concentration of hormones inhibits either the production of trop hormones, or the production of liberins (negative feedback).

With violation of the regulation of hormone synthesis, either hyperfunction or hypofunction may occur.

Transport hormones. Water soluble hormones (protein-peptide hormones, hormones - amino acid derivatives (excluding thyroxine)) are transported free in the form of aqueous solutions. Water-soluble (thyroxine, steroid hormones) are transported in a complex with transport proteins. For example, corticosteroids are transported by protein transcertin, thyroxin - thyroxins-binding protein. White-knitted hormone shapes are regarded as a certain depot of hormones. The concentration of hormones in the blood plasma is very small, is in the range of 10 -15 -10 -19 mol.

Circulating in blood hormones have an effect on certain fabric - Misheng in which there are receptors to appropriate hormones. Receptors are most often oligomeric glycoproteins or lipoproteins. Receptors to various hormones can be located on cell surfaces, or inside cells. The number of receptors, their activity may vary under the action of various factors.

Catabolism hormones. The hormones of protein nature disintegrated to amino acids, ammonia, urea. Hormones - derivatives amino acids are inactivated by various ways - deamination, iodine cleavage, oxidation, ring rupture. Steroid hormones are inactivated by oxidative-reducing transformations without breaking the steroid ring, by reacting a conjugation with sulfuric acid and glucuronic acid.

3. Mechanisms of hormone action

There are several mechanisms for the implementation of a hormonal signal for water-soluble and water-soluble hormones.

All hormones are provided three finite effects:

1) Changing the number of proteins and enzymes due to changes in the speed of their synthesis.

2) Changes in the activity of enzymes available in cells

3) Changes in the permeability of cell membranes

Cytosolic mechanism of hydrophobic (lipophilic) hormones. . Lipophilic hormones can penetrate the cell through the cell membrane, so the receptors for them are located intracellularly in cytosol, on mitochondria, on the surface of the kernel. Hormone receptors most often include 2 domains: for binding to hormone and for binding to DNA. The receptor when interacting with the hormone changes its structure, is freed from the shaper, as a result of which the hormone - the receptor complex acquires the ability to penetrate the kernel and interact with certain DNA sections. This, in turn, leads to a change in the transcription rate (synthesis of RNA), and as a result, the transmission rate (protein synthesis) changes.

The membrane mechanism of action of water-soluble hormones.

Water soluble hormones are not capable of penetrating through the cytoplasmic membrane. The receptors for this group of hormones are located on the surface of the cell membrane. Since the hormones do not pass inside the cells, a secondary intermediary is needed between them and intracellular processes, which transmits a hormonal signal into the cell. Inositol-containing phospholipids, calcium ions, cyclic nucleotides can serve as secondary intermediaries.

Cyclic nucleotides - cAMF, CGMF - Secondary intermediaries

The hormone interacts with the receptor and forms a hormone - a receptor complex, which changes the conformation of the receptor. This, in turn, changes the conformation of the membrane GTF - dependent protein (G-protein) and leads to the activation of adenylate cyclase membrane enzyme, which translates ATP to the CAMF. Intracellular cyclic AMP serves as a secondary intermediary. It activates intracellular coincinase enzymes that catalyze phosphorylation of various intracellular proteins (enzymes, membrane proteins), which leads to the implementation of the end effect of the hormone. The hormone effect "turns off" under the action of the enzyme phosphodiesterase, which destroys CAMF, and phosphatase enzymes, dephosphorylating proteins.

Calcium ions - secondary mediators.

The interaction of the receptor hormone increases the permeability of calcium channels of the cell membrane, and the extracellular calcium enters the cytosol. In the cells of ions Ca 2+ interact with the regulatory squodulin protein. Calcium-calmodulin complex activates calcium-dependent protein kinases that activate the phosphorus of various proteins and lead to end effects.

Inositol-containing phospholipids - Secondary mediators.

The formation of the hormone-receptor complex is activated in the cell membrane with phospholipase C, which splits phosphatidylizes to secondary intermediaries of diacylglycerin (DAG) and inositol-trifhosphate (IF 3). Dag and IF 3 activate the yield of Ca 2+ from intracellular depot to cytosol. Calcium ions interact with calmodulin, which activates protein kinases and subsequent phosphorus of proteins, accompanied by the end effects of the hormone.

4. Brief Hormone Feature

Belkovo peptide hormones

Hormones pituitary glands

Hormones front Share The pituitary glands are somatotropin, prolactin (simple proteins), thyrotropin, follitriopine, letropin (glycoproteins), corticotropin, lipotropin (peptides).

Somatotropin - protein, including about 200 amino acids. It has a pronounced anabolic effect, activates glukegenesis, synthesis of nucleic acids, proteins, in particular, collagen, synthesis of glycosaminoglycans. Somatotropin causes a hyperglycemic effect, enhances lipolysis.

Gypofunction in children leads to pituitary dwarfs (nanism). Hyperfunction in children is accompanied by giantism, and in adults acromegaly.

Prolactin - The hormone of protein nature. Its products are activated during lactation. Prolactin stimulates: Mammogenesis, lactopoese, erythropois

Follitropine - Glycoprotein, determines the cyclicality of the ripening of follicles, the production of estrogen in women. In the men's body, it stimulates spermatogenesis.

Lutropin - Glycoprotein, in the female body contributes to the formation of a yellow body and developing progesterone, in the men's body stimulates spermatogenesis and androgen products.

Thyrotropin - Glycoprotein, stimulates the development of the thyroid gland, activates the synthesis of proteins, enzymes.

Corticotropic - peptide, including 39 amino acids, activates the ripening of adrenal glands and the production of corticosteroids from cholesterol. Hyperfunction - Incenko Cushing syndrome , Manperson is manifested by hyperglycemia, hypertension, osteoporosis, redistribution of fats with their accumulation on their face and chest.

Lipotropin Includes in its composition about100 amino acids, stimulates the disintegration of fats, serves as a source of endorphins. Hyperfunction is accompanied by a pituitary cachexia, hypofunction - pituitary obesity.

To hormones middle Staff The pituitary refers melanotropin (Melanocytimulatory hormone). It is a peptide, stimulates the formation of melanocytes and the synthesis of melaninins in them, which have photoprotective effects and are antioxidants.

To hormones rear The pituitary glands includes vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin. These hormones are neurosceptions, they are synthesized in hypothalamic nuclei, and then move into the rear share of the pituitary gland. Both hormones consist of 9 amino acids.

Vasopressin Regulates water exchange, enhances in kidneys synthesis protein of aquaporin and reabsorption of water in the renal tubules. Vasopressin narrows vessels and increases blood pressure. The lack of hormone leads to a disease of a non-soldering diabetes, manifested by a sharp increase in the diurea.

Oxytocin Stimulates the reduction of the muscles of the uterus, reduces the smooth muscles of the mammary glands, enhances the separation of milk. Oxytocin activates the synthesis of lipids.

Hormones of parathyroid glands

Hormones of parathyroid glands are parathgoromon , calcithonin , Participating in the regulation of calcium - phosphoric exchange.

Parathgormon - Protein, includes 84 amino acids in its composition, is synthesized as an inactive precursor. Paranthgarmon increases the level of calcium in the blood and reduces phosphorus content. Increasing the level of calcium in the blood under the action of the parathgamon occurs due to its three main effects:

Strengthens "leaching" calcium from bone tissue with simultaneous updating of the organic bone matrix,

Increases calcium delay in the kidneys,

Together with vitamin D 3, it enhances the synthesis in the intestine of calcium-binding protein and the absorption of calcium from food.

With paraphormonium hypofunction, hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, muscle cramps, a disturbance of the respiratory muscles are observed.

In case of hyperfunction of the parathgamon, hypercalcemia, osteoporosis, nephroalcinosis, phosphaturia are observed.

Calcithonin - peptide, including 32 amino acids in its composition. With regard to calcium exchange, it is a paranthormon antagonist, i.e. Reduces the level of calcium and phosphorus in the blood mainly due to the reduction of calcium resorption from bone tissue

Pancreatic hormones

Insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide are produced in the pancreas.

Insulin - protein, consists of 51 amino acids included in 2 polypeptide chains. It is synthesized in in-cells of islets in the form of predecessor of pre-insult, and then subjected to partial proteolysis. Insulin regulates all types of exchange (protein, lipid, carbohydrate), as a whole, has an anabolic effect. The effect of insulin on carbohydrate exchange is manifested in increasing the permeability of tissues for glucose, activating the enzyme hexocinase, enhancing the use of glucose in tissues. Insulin increases glucose oxidation, its use on protein synthesis, fats, as a result of which hypoglycemia develops. Insulin activates lipogenesis, lypolysis slows, exhibits an anti-carpense effect. Insulin enhances protein synthesis and nucleic acids.

The hypofunction is accompanied by the development of diabetes mellitus, which is manifested by hyperglycemia, glucosuria, acetional, negative nitrogen balance, polyuria, dehydration of the body (see also "carbohydrate pathology").

Glucagon - The hymond of peptide nature, consists of 29 amino acids, is synthesized in b - the cells of the islands of the pancreas. It has a hyperglycemic action, mainly due to the enhancement of the phosphorrent decomposition of the liver glycogen to glucose. Glucagon activates lipolysis, activates the catabolism of proteins.

Hormones for the fork of the gland

Timus is the organ of lymphopower, tymopopower and the body of the production of hormones that determine immune processes in the body. This iron is active in childhood, and its involution occurs to adolescence. The main hormones of the fork gland have a peptide nature. These include:

· b, in - Timozins - define the proliferation of T-lymphocytes;

· I, II. - t. imopoetins - reinforce the maturation of T-lymphocytes, block nervously - muscle excitability;

· timular humoral factor - contributes to the differentiation of T-lymphocytes for killers, helpers, suppressors;

· lymphocytomulatory hormone - enhances the formation of antibodies;

· timular homeostatic hormone - It is a synergist of somatotropin and corticotropin antagonist and gonadotropin, and therefore it slows down premature puberty.

In the hypofunction of the thymus, immunodeficiency states develop. In hyperfunction, autoimmune diseases arise.

Hormones thyroid gland

Thyroid hormones are synthesized in thyroid glands (T 3), thyroxine (T 4) and a peptide hormone calcitonin.

The synthesis of thyroid hormones passes several stages:

· Absorption of I thyroid gland due to the "iodine pump";

· Oxidation of iodides into a molecular form with the participation of the enzyme of iodidexidase

2i - + 2N * + H 2 O 2\u003e I 2

· Iodine organization - i.e. The inclusion of iodine into the aimino acid of tyrosine in thyroidoglobuline of the thyroid gland. (first is formed monoiodtoith, and then diodththnin);

· Condensation of 2 molecules of diodhyronic;

· Hydrolysis T 4 of thyreoglobulin.

Thyroid hormones affect energy exchange, increase oxygen consumption, ATP synthesis, for numerous biosynthetic processes, for operation Na-to-pump. In general, they activate the processes of proliferation, differentiation, activate hemopoies, osteogenesis. Their action is carbohydrate exchange manifests itself in the development of hyperglycemia. Thyroid hormones affect lipid exchange, activating lipolysis, in - oxidation of fatty acids. Their action on azoty exchangeit consists in activating the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids.

Hypophunction of thyroid hormones in childhood leads to development kitinism , whose symptoms are low growth, mental retardation. In adults, the hypofunction of thyroid hormones is accompanied by myxedema - mucous edema, violation of the exchange of glycosaminoglycans of connective tissue and water delay. With a lack of thyroid hormones, energy processes are violated, muscle weakness, hypothermia develops. Endemic goiter it occurs during iodine deficiency, the growth of the gland is observed and, as a rule, hypofunction.

Hyperfunction manifests as thyrotoxicosis (Basedova disease) , Symptoms of which are the exhaustion of the body, hyperthermia, hyperglycemia, the defeat of the heart muscle, neurological symptoms, Puchglasie (Exophthalm)

Autimmune thyroiditis It is associated with the formation of antibodies to the receptors of thyroid hormones, a compensatory increase in the synthesis of hormones with thyroid gland.

Hormones of the brain layer of adrenal glands (catecholas)

The hormones of the brain layer of adrenal glands include adrenaline, norepinephrine - derivatives of Tyrosine amino acids.

Adrenalin affects carbohydrated Exchange, causes hyperglycemia, enhancing glycogen decay in the liver to glucose. Adrenaline affects fat exchange, Lipolysis activates, increases the blood concentration of free fatty acids. Adrenaline enhances catabolism belkov. Adrenaline affects many physiological processes: it has a vasotonic (vasoconstrictor), a cardiotonic effect is a stress hormone,

Noraderenalin - More exhibits neuromediator effect.

Hyperproduction of catecholamines is observed at a peuochromocytoma (chromaffine cell tumor)

Hormones Epiphyse

Epiphiz produces melatonin hormones, adrenoglomerulopin, epithalamine

Melatonin In chemical nature is a tryptophan derivative. Melatonin regulates the synthesis of tissue pigments (melaninov), has a clarifier effect at night and is an antagonist of the melanotropin pituitary. Melatonin affects the differentiation of cells, has an antitumor effect, stimulates immune processes, prevents premature gender maturation. Together with epitlamine (peptide) determines the biological rhythms of the body: the production of gonadotropic hormones, daily rhythms, seasonal rhythms.

Adrenoglomerulopin (Triptophan derivative) activates in the adrenal miners mineralocorticoids and, thus, regulates water-mineral exchange.

Hormones bark of adrenal glands

Hormones of adrenal cortex: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, predecessors of men's sex hormones belong to steroid hormones that are cholesterol alcohol derivatives.

Glucocorticoids

Corticosterone, cortisone and hydrocortisone (cortisol ) affect all types of exchange. Influence on carbohydrate exchange, cause hyperglycemia, activate glukegenesis. Glucocorticoids regulate lipid exchange, reinforcing lipolysis on the limbs, activating lipogenesis on the face and chest (a moon-like person appears). Influence on protein exchange, glucocorticoids activates the decay of proteins in most tissues, but enhance protein synthesis in the liver. Glucocortiotoids have a pronounced anti-inflammatory effect, inhibiting phosofolipase A 2 and, as a result, the angry synthesis of eikosanoids. Glucocorticoids provide stress reaction, and in large doses suppress immune processes.

Hyperfunction of glucocorticosteroids can be hypophized origin or manifestation of insufficiency of the production of the hormones of the cortical layer of adrenal glands. It is manifested by the disease Itsenko-Kushinga . Gypofunction - disease Addison (Bronze disease), manifests itself a reduced resistance to the body, often hypertension, skin hyperpigmentation.

Mineralocorticoids

Deoxcikortikosterone, Aldosterone Regulate water-salt exchanging, promotes sodium delay and removal through kidney potassium and protons.

In hyperfunction, hypertension is observed, water isolate, an increase in the load on the heart muscle, a decrease in potassium level, arrhythmia, alkalosis develops. Gypofunction leads to hypotension, blood thickening, renal impairment, acidosis.

Predecessors androgenov

The predecessor of Androgen is dehydroepyondrosterone (DEC). With its hyperproduction, Virilism arises, in which women are formed by hair cover on male type. In severe form, the adrenogenital syndrome is developing.

5. Men's sex hormones (androgens)

testosterone

gulf-organic biological hormone

Androgen are related to androgen androsteron, Testosterone , dihydrotestosterone . They affect all types of exchange, protein synthesis, fats, osteogenesis, the exchange of phospholipids, determine the sexual differentiation, behavioral reactions, stimulate the development of the central nervous system. The hypofunction is manifested by asthenical constitution, infantilism, violation of the formation of secondary sexual signs.

6. Women's sex hormones (estrogens)

estradiol

Estrogens are estron, estradiol, estriol . They are synthesized from androgen by the aromatization of the first ring. Estrogens regulate the ovarian menstrual cycle, the flow of pregnancy, lactation. They activate the anabolic processes (protein synthesis, phospholipids, osteogenesis), show hypocholesteromemic effect. Gypofunction leads to amenorrhea, osteoporosis.

7. Hormones placenta

In the embryonic period of the placenta plays the role of endocrine gland. The placenta hormones include, in particular, chorionic somatotropin, chorionic gonadotropin, estrogens, progesterone, relaxing.

The exchange of steroid hormones in the embryonal period occurs in a unified mother-placental-fruit system. Cholesterol from the mother's body enters the placenta, where it is converted to the pregenolone (precursor of steroid hormones). The fetus pregnanolone is transformed into androgens who enter the placenta. In placenta from androgens, estrogens are synthesized, which enter the body of a pregnant woman. Estrogen excretion is the criterion for pregnancy.

Features of hormonal status in children

Immediately after birth, the function of the pituitary gland is activated, the adrenal cortex to provide a stress reaction. The activation of the function of the thyroid gland and the brain layer of the adrenal glands is aimed at amplifying lipolysis, the decay of glycogen and the warming of the body. During this period, there is some hypofunction of parathyroid glands, hypocalcemia.

At first after the birth of a child receives some hormones in the composition of breast milk. In the first days after birth, sex crisis may develop associated with the lack of the effect of the mother's germ hormones. It is manifested by the loading of the mammary glands, the appearance of bodypings, guncrows, the edema of the genital organs.

In preschool age, the thyroid, fork iron, epiphysis, pituitary gland is activated.

By the period of puberty, epiphysis and thymus are involved, the production of gonadotropic and genital hormones is noticeably activated.

Literature

1. wounds, All-Russian Institute of Scientific and Technical Information; Cost: E.S. Pankratova, V.K. Finn; Under total. ed. VC. Finn: automatic generation of hypotheses in intelligent systems. - M.: Liberk, 2009

2. RAS, Society of biochemists and molecular biologists, Institute of Biochemistry. A.N. Bach; Ot. ed. L.P. Ovchinnikov: the successes of biological chemistry. - Pushchino: ONTI PNC RAS, 2009

3.: Silence of genes. - Pushchino: ONTO PNC RAS, 2008

4. Zurabian S.E.: National Connection National Pattern. - M.: Gootar Media, 2008

5. Komom V.P.: Biochemistry. - M.: Drop, 2008

6. Ed. E.S. Severin; Rent: A.A. Terentyev, N.N. Chernov: biochemistry with exercises and tasks. - M.: Gootar Media, 2008

7. Ed.: D.M. Zubairova, E.A. Pazyuk; Retch: F.N. Gilmiaryov, I.G. Shcherbak: Biochemistry. - M.: Gootar Media, 2008

8. Sotnikov O.S.: Statistics and structural kinetics of living asynaptic dendrites. - St. Petersburg: Science, 2008

9. Tubavkin N.A.: Bioorganic chemistry. - M.: Drop, 2008

10. Alexandrovskaya E.I.: Anthropochemistry. - M.: Class-M, 2007

Posted on Allbest.ru.

...

Plan lectures

1. Regulatory systems of the body.
Levels and principles of the organization.
2. Hormones. Definition of concept. Features
actions.
3. Classification of hormones: at the place of synthesis and
Chemical nature, properties.
4. Main representatives of hormones
5. Stages of metabolism of hormones.

The main properties of living organisms
1. Unity of chemical composition.
2. metabolism and energy
3. Live systems - open systems: use external
Energy sources in the form of food, light, etc.
4. irritability - the ability of living systems to react
on external or internal influences (changes).
5. Ecavitability - the ability of living systems to respond to
The action of the stimulus.
6. Movement, the ability to move.
7. Reproduction that ensures the continuity of life in
Row of generations
8. Heredity
9. Variability
10. Systems - self-governing,
Self-regulating, self-organizing systems

Live organisms are able to support
Constancy of the inner medium - homeostasis.
Disturbance of homeostasis leads to illness or
of death.
Mammals homeostasis indicators
Regulation of pH
Regulation of water-salt metabolism.
Regulation of the concentration of substances in the body
Regulation of metabolism
Energy exchange speed regulation
Regulation of body temperature.

Homeostasis in the body is maintained by regulating the speed of enzymatic reactions, due to change: I). Availability of the substracted molecules

Homeostasis in the body is supported by
regulation of the speed of enzymatic reactions, for
Change account:
I). Availability of substrate molecules and coenzyme;
Ii). Catalytic activity of the enzyme molecules;
Iii). The number of enzyme molecules.
E *
S.
S.
Coenzyme
Vitamin
Cell
P.
P.

In multicellular organisms in maintaining
Gomeostasis participate 3 systems:
one). Nervous
2). Gumoral
3). Immune
Regulatory systems operate with participation
Signal molecules.
Signal molecules are organic
Substances that transfer information.
For signal transmission:
AND). CNS uses neurotransmitters (regulates physiological
Functions and work of the endocrine system)
B). The humoral system uses hormones (regulates
metabolic and physiological processes, proliferation,
Differentiation of cells and fabrics)
IN). The immune system uses cytokines (protects the body from
External and internal pathogenic factors, regulates immune
and inflammatory reactions, proliferation, differentiation
cells, operation of the endocrine system)

Signal molecules
Nonspecific factors: pH, T
Specific factors: signal molecules
Enzyme
Substrate
Product

External and internal factors
CNS.
Regulation systems form
3 hierarchical levels
I.
Neuromediators
Hypothalamus
Release of hormones
Statin Liberins
Pituitary
II.
Tropic hormones
Endocrine glands
Hormones
Tabs Mishenia
III.
S.
E.
P.
First level - CNS. Nerve cells
Get signals from external and internal
media, convert them into nervous
Impulse
and
Transfer
across
synapses,
Using
neurotransmitters
which
cause
Change
Metabizma
in
effector cells.
The second level is an endocrine system.
Includes
hypothalamus,
pituitary,
peripheral endocrine glands as well
Individual
Cells
(Apage
system),
Synthesizing
under
influence
relevant incentive hormones that
Through blood act on target tissue.
The third level is intracellular. On
Metabolic processes in the cell affect
substrates and metabolic products, as well as
Fabric hormones (autocrino).

Principles of the organization of the neuroendocrine system
The basis of the operation of the neuroendocrine system lies
The principle of direct, reverse, positive and negative
Communication.
1. The principle of direct positive contact - activation
The current system of the system leads to the activation of the following
system link, signal distribution to the side of the cells and the occurrence of metabolic or
physiological changes.
2. The principle of direct negative connection - activation
The current link system leads to the suppression of the following
System links and termination of signal distribution in
The side of target cells.
3. The principle of reverse negative connection - activation
The current link system causes the suppression of the previous
System link and termination of its stimulating effect on
Current system.
Principles of direct positive and reverse negative
are the basis for maintaining homeostasis.

10.

4. The principle of reverse positive contact -
Activation of the current link system causes
Stimulation of the previous system of the system. The foundation
cyclic processes.
HYPOTHALAMUS
GonadotropinreLiz Hormon
PITUITARY
FSH.
FOLLICLE
Estradiol

11.

Hormones
The term hormone (Hormao - exciting, awaken) introduced in 1905
Baylis and Starling to express secretine activity.
Hormones - Organic Signal Molecules
Wireless system action.
1. Synthesized in endocrine glands,
2. Transported by blood
3. Act on target fabric (thyroid hormones
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, etc.).
Over 100 hormones are known.

12.

Tissue target - a fabric in which hormone causes
Specific biochemical or
Physiological reaction.
Target tissue cells for interaction with
Hormone synthesize special receptors,
the number and type of which determines
Intensity and response character.
In the body about 200 types of differentiated
cells, just some of them produce
hormones, but are all targets for
Hormone actions.

13.

Features of the activities of hormones:
1. Act in small quantities (10-6-10-12 mmol / l);
2. There is absolute or high specificity in
The action of hormones.
3. Transfer only information. Not used in
energy and construction purposes;
4. Activate indirectly through cascade systems,
(adenylate cyclase, inositatrimphosphate, etc.
Systems) interacting with receptors;
5. Regulate
activity,
quantity
Belkov
(enzymes), transport of substances through the membrane;
6. Depend on the CNS;
7. Unhealthy principle. Even 1 hormone molecule
able to provide effect;
8. The final effect is the result of the set of multiple
hormones.

14.

Cascade systems
Hormones regulate the amount and catalytic
The activity of enzymes is not directly, but
indirectly through cascading systems
Hormones
Cascade systems
Enzymes
x 1000000.
Cascade systems:
1. Multiplely enhance the hormone signal (increase
The number or catalytic activity of the enzyme) so
that 1 hormone molecule is capable of changing
Metabolism in the cell
2. Provide the signal penetration into the cell
(Water soluble hormones in a cage independently not
penetrate)

15.

cascade systems consist of:
1. receptors;
2. Regulatory proteins (G-proteins, IRS, SHC, STAT, etc.).
3. Secondary Intermediaries (Messenger - Messenger)
(CA2 +, CAMF, CGMF, DAG, ITF);
4. Enzymes (adenylate cyclase, phospholipase C,
phosphodiesterase, proteinkinase A, C, G,
phosphoproteinphospotase);
Types of cascading systems:
1. adenylate cyclase,
2. Guanillatesciclase,
3. Inositatriphosphate,
4. Ras, etc.),

16.

Hormones provide both systemic and local
act:
1. Endocrine (system) action hormones
(endocrine effect) is implemented when they
are transported by blood and operate on organs and
Fabrics of the whole organism. Characteristic for true
hormones.
2. Local hormone action is implemented when they
act
on
cells
in
which
were
synthesized (autocreen effect), or on
Neighboring
Cells
(Parakrin
Effect).
Characteristic for true and tissue hormones.

17. Classification of hormones

A. For chemical structure:
1.Septide hormones
Rilizing hormones of hypothalamus
Hormones pituitary glands
Parathgormon
Insulin
Glucagon
Calcithonin
2.Steroid hormones
Sex hormones
Corticoids
Calcitriol.
3. derivatives of amino acids (tyrosine)
Thyroid hormones
Catecholamines
4. Eicosanoids - arachidonic acid derivatives
(Hormone-like substances)
Lakeotrienes, thromboxanes, prostaglandins, prostacyclines

18.

B. at the place of synthesis:
1. Hormones hypothalamus
2. Hormones pituitary glands
3. Pancreatic hormones
4. Parasons of the parachitoid gland
5. Thyroid hormones
6. Hormones of adrenal glands
7. Gonad hormones
8. Hormones Zhkt.
9. etc

19.

B. According to biological functions:
Adjustable processes
Hormones
Coverishment of carbohydrates, lipids, insulin, glucagon, adrenaline,
Amino acids
Tyroxin, Somatotropin
Water-salt exchange
cortisol
Aldosterone, antidieretic hormone
Calcium exchange and phosphate parathglon, calcitonin, calcitriol
Reproductive function
Synthesis
Gormons
Gloomy
and
Estradiol
testosterone,
Gonadotropic hormones
secretion Tropic hormones pituitary
Endocrine statins of hypothalamus
progesterone,
Liberina
and
Change of metabolism in Eicosanoids, Histamine, Secretin, Gastrin,
Cages synthesizing somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal
hormone
peptide (VIP), cytokines

20. Hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary

Main hormones
Hormones of hypothalamus and pituitary

21. Hormones of Hydallamus

Release hormones - support basal level
and physiological peaks of trop hormone products
pituitary and normal functioning
peripheral glands of internal secretion
Releases
(hormones)
Liberina
Activation of secretion
Tropic hormones
Statins
Inhibition of secretion
Tropic hormones

22.

Thyrotropin Release Hormone (TRG)
Tripeptide: Pyro-Depth GIS-PRO-NH2
CO NH CH CO N
CH2.
C.
O.
C.
O.
N.
H.
Stimulates secretion: thyrotropic hormone (TSH)
Prolactin
Somatotropin
NH2.

23.

Gonadotropin Release Hormone (GRG)
Decadeptide:
Pyro-Depth GIS-TRP-Ser-Tir-Gly-Lei-Arg-Pro-Gly-NH2
Stimulates secretion: Foliculizing hormone
Luthenesuing hormone
Corticotropin Release Hormone (CRG)
Peptide 41 amino acid residue.
Stimulates secretion: Vasopressin
Oxytocin
Catecholamines
angiotensin-2.

24.

Somatostanin Release Hormone (CRG)
Peptide 44 amino acid residues
Inhibits the secretion of somatotropin
Somatotropin inhibiting hormone (SIG)
Tetradecopeptide (14 amino acid residues)
Ala-Gly-Cis-Liz-ASN-Feng-Feng-Trp-Liz-Thene-Ten-Ser-Tsis-NH2
S.
S.
Inhibit secretion: growth hormone, insulin, glucagon.
Melanotropin Release Hormon
Melanotropin inhibiting hormone
Regulate the secretion of the melanomulating hormone

25.

Hormones pituitary glands
Front proportion pituitary
1 Somatommotropin:
- a growth hormone
- Prolactin
- Chorionic somatotropin
2 peptides:
- ACTG
- -lipotropin
- Enkephalins
- Endorphins
- Melanobimulating hormone
POM
3 Glycoprotein hormones: - thyrotropin
- Luteenesia hormone
- Folico-stimulating hormone
- chorionic gonadotropin

26.

The rear share of pituitary gland
Vasopressin
N-Cis-Tir-Feng-GLN-ASN-CIS-PRO-ARG-GLI-CO-NH2
S.
S.
Synthesized by the suprasoptic cathoid of the hypothalamus
Blood concentration 0-12 pg / ml
Emission is regulated by blood loss
Functions: 1) stimulates water reabsorption
2) stimulates glukegenesis, glycogenolysis
3) narrows vessels
4) is a component of the stress reaction

27.

Oxytocin
N-Cis-Tir-Ile-GLN-ASN-CIS-Pro-Lei-Gly-Co-NH2
S.
S.
It is synthesized by a paravementricular core of the hypothalamus
Functions: 1) Stimulates milk secretion with milk glands
2) stimulates the cuts of the uterus
3) Release Factor for Prolactin Emission

28. Basic steroid hormones

Hormones peripheral glands
Main steroid hormones
CH2OH
With O.
CH3.
With O.
HO.
O.
O.
Progesterone
HO.
Corticosterone
CH2OH
With O.
Oh.
O CH2OH
HC with O.
HO.
O.
O.
Cortisol
Aldosterone

29.

Testosterone
Estradiol

30.

Ovarian
Eggs
Placenta
Adrenal glands

31. The derivatives of amino acids

Tyrosine
Triiodthththinine
Adrenalin
Tyroxin

32.

Gastrointestinal
(intestinal) hormones
4. Other peptides
1. Gastrine-cholecystokinin family
Osatostatin
-Hastrin
-Newnzin
-Holecyistokinin
-Motiline
2. Family of Secretin Glucagon
-Sewish R.
-Secretin
-Pankreostatin
-Hlukgon
-Heeher-inhibiting pectid
-Osoactive intestinal peptide
-Peptide histidine isoleucine
3. PR family
- Pancreatic polypeptide
-Weptide yy.
-Nesopeptide Y.

33. Stages of hormone metabolism

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Synthesis
Activation
Storage
Secretion
Transport
Act
Inactivation
Hormone exchange paths depend on their nature

34. Metabolism of peptide hormones

35. Synthesis, activation, storage and secretion of peptide hormones

DNA
Economy
Intron
Economy
Intron
transcription
ON M-RNA
Processing
M-RNA
Ribosomes
Signal
peptide
Sher
Cytoplasmic membrane
Core
broadcast
prephorormon
Complex
Golgi
Proteoliz,
Glycosylation
prog
Active hormone
Secretory
Bubbles
Signal
Molecules
ATF

36.

37.

Transportation of peptide hormones is carried out in
free form (water-soluble) and in the complex with
squirrels.
Mechanism of action. Peptide hormones
interact with membrane receptors and through
Intracellular intermediaries system regulate
The activity of enzymes, which affects the intensity
Metabolism in target tissues.
To lesser extent, peptide hormones regulate
protein biosynthesis.
Mechanism of the activities of hormones (receptors, intermediaries)
Considered in the Enzymes section.
Inactivation. Hormones are inactivated by hydrolysis to
AK in the tissues of targets, liver, kidneys, etc. Time
Semi-life insulin, glucagon ½ \u003d 3-5min, at STG
½ \u003d 50 min.

38.

Mechanism of protein hormone
(adenylate cyclase system)
Protein
hormone
ATF
Proteinkinase
AC.
CAMF
Proteinkinase (act)
Phosphorylation
E (Neakt)
E (Act)
Substrate
Product

39. Metabolism of steroid hormones

40.

1. Synthesis of hormones comes from cholesterol in
Smooth EPR and mitochondria of adrenal cortex,
Gonadas, skin, liver, kidneys. Transformation steroids
It consists in the cleavage of an aliphatic side chain,
hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, isomerization, or
In the aromatization of the ring.
2. Activation. Steroid hormones are often formed
Already in active form.
3. Storage. Synthesized hormones accumulate
In the cytoplasm in the complex with special proteins.
4. The secretion of steroid hormones occurs passively.
Hormones are moving from cytoplasmic proteins in
Cell membrane, where to take them from
Blood proteins.
5. Transport. Steroid hormones, because they
Water suspenders are transferred in blood predominantly
In the complex with transport proteins (albumin).

41. Synthesis of Corticoid Hormones

Progesterone
17ά.
Oxyprogesterone
21
Deoxikortisol.
Prognenolon
Cholesterol
17ά.
17ά, 21.
11
Oxypreregnenolone Dioxiprhegnolone Deoxocortisol
11β
Oxypreregnenolon
21
Oxypreregnenolon
Cortisol
cortisone
11β
Oxyprogesterone
11β, 21.
Dioxiprenenolon
Corticosterone
deoxykortico
sterry
18
Oxypreregnenolon
18
Oxidezoxicorti
Kosterone
18
Oxycorticosterone
Aldosterone

42.

Mechanism of action of steroid hormones
DNA
Cytoreceptor
G.
R.
G R.
Ions
Glucose
AK
R.
And - RNA
Activated
Hormone - receptor
complex
Synthesis protein

43.

Inactivation. Steroid hormones are inactivated
So
Same
as
and
xenobiotics
Reactions
Hydroxylation and conjugation in the liver and tissues
targets. Inactivated derivatives are derived
From the body with urine and bile. Half-life B.
blood is usually more peptide hormones. W.
Cortisol ½ \u003d 1.5-2 hours.

44. Catecholamine metabolism Sympato-adrenal axis

1. Synthesis. Synthesis of catecholamines occurs in the cytoplasm and granules
Cells of the brain layer of adrenal glands. Catecholamines are immediately formed in
active form. Noraderenalin is formed mainly in organs,
Inneveloped sympathetic nerves (80% of the total).
Noraderenalin
Oh.
Oh.
O2 H2O
Oh.
Fe2 +.
CH 2.
HC.
Coool
Tir
Oh.
OH O2 H2O
HC.
Cu2 +.
CH 2.
NH 2.
Coool
H2C.
NH 2.
Dopamine
Oh.
Oh.
Oh.
Oh.
WIT. FROM
B6.
CH 2.
NH 2.
CO2.
3sam 3SAg
HC.
IS HE
HC.
H2C.
NH 2.
H2C.
Noraderenalin
Dof

IS HE
N + nn
(CH 3) 33
adrenalin
MethylTransferaza

45.

2. Storage of catecholamines occurs in secretory granules.
Catecholas are enrolled in the granules by ATP-dependent transport and
Stored in them in a complex with ATP in a ratio of 4: 1 (hormone-ATP).
3. The secretion of hormones from the granules occurs through exocytosis. IN
The difference between the sympathetic nerves, the cells of the brain layer of the adrenal glands
Lained the mechanism of reverse capture of excreted catecholamines.
4. Transport. In blood plasma Catecholamines form a continuing
Complex with albumin. Adrenaline is transported mainly to
Liver and skeletal muscles. Noradrenalin only in minor
The quantities reaches peripheral tissues.
{!LANG-76caa1cf85365176205e1f53fbe595fe!}
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{!LANG-9ddcc50c46d65db490d3e4da5bce9342!}
{!LANG-79a1809c20ac3ad4ee8e33130505d8f2!}
{!LANG-17cfbfb3665814dc245cb8278ade8f33!}
{!LANG-b18e5bd5ad896e2b37444ad9fb92d6fd!}
{!LANG-923f22519d440f212f06b3c1085a12ae!}
{!LANG-6a37f6dd6212ca5988df7fade9e2c6ba!}
{!LANG-739dcd1b47968f5d00a5170ce847363f!}
{!LANG-fed57277d234bae141ed779204c33d67!}
{!LANG-e87a0d4694c14d6aabab74513c775fc8!}

{!LANG-9a0e48f688aff3a6a7d8b9244763085b!}

{!LANG-ebdbb972bfb62e3d3f93e0514b8d0f2a!}
{!LANG-fc71de99152192d14833faa37e9d9822!}
{!LANG-995d3623493310c5faf8142b9b04b35b!}
and
{!LANG-ca336e707c7fb7003a676d6cb6159597!}
{!LANG-8fdb581fc051ab4e9e7f0fb26a3db916!}
{!LANG-bc8c937423fa955ce346d43ced062b98!}
{!LANG-1f2ce8733bfe6445b2328a3894158dda!}
{!LANG-892b738bee1e0b7a28931055c53a1cd6!}
{!LANG-a179ffca2ba83a6e1b5869d7dee5f91e!}
{!LANG-8fcdf359a9118692fb7fa949ff787d89!}
on
{!LANG-872b6206d81a2225337db3c4a7a07b35!}
{!LANG-1b70689ab66731cc70d9fa129778730b!}
{!LANG-1c22bd845362405febc399de687350a4!}
{!LANG-e258350d3f18728909ba2864e383d2b9!}
{!LANG-2ece303ccd3a1dd06a9536fb6ffdda25!}
{!LANG-3e2831e6ba9cbda6e996710b55b4e7f1!}
{!LANG-c38b6cd07c7f130524383094f7a8c353!}
{!LANG-56657aefd99809057d37bca3e8c6c3b8!}

47.

{!LANG-5c5aada3d941f4411e12b553b3e6d6e1!}
{!LANG-3e460d81a0e3d562af14790e9efd1cb0!}
{!LANG-79930bd3c80f2e8eb0cb37993faa8ab2!}
{!LANG-8ad0ad49ed5417036b50cec4f7f48776!}
{!LANG-b813b0722259dbf8a22a73c961cab7b1!}
{!LANG-4f95299f002a4f31fad8c6e74f69ea03!}
{!LANG-0b988735b8e793a583f545158666b413!}
{!LANG-47fe424c4e9c29efb05529c4fed5fa52!}
{!LANG-5a2ba89a7e511c635310fb91e0dc5299!}
{!LANG-1052f94ac73db44daeae936b5e45a648!}
{!LANG-adb569f3bc6e744bc0a84856eb823541!}
{!LANG-8eb2e9a6b063eb1d7041da6b46b19c93!}
{!LANG-c5b9058d99cfe2502aa221a0af679026!}
{!LANG-e0e552d1fbc399e04365f41b46b3a6ac!}

48.

49.

{!LANG-26041e4cc38870c217114c039934afb6!}
{!LANG-69aba55ee103275fdb06898911c38e64!}
{!LANG-0654ae51f2e187b80ab3159f6c87c41a!}
{!LANG-d1bc6133e25aab6678a20b6d3fc601db!}
{!LANG-e4214341223fe17b910a116bfa238a4e!}
{!LANG-4fd272af0784da26c38a55fe727714cf!}
{!LANG-449a6abe4aa29bccce21a60fd8b3e1a3!}
{!LANG-55d75e22b9512547065eae957cbe5fe7!}
{!LANG-dc53687d3ffa76e6be792013dfbbbadb!}
{!LANG-226b5092acefff2b0bad817837270011!}
{!LANG-dabe8db4b0f3fa1c8cacf0412c96e800!}
{!LANG-80d6c55d3c8b55649c85f73da1c3220f!}
{!LANG-50e36f868bf17e15ef6d545cf63324d9!}
{!LANG-5bbefdb5712d38ea9857b8c258bb6cb4!}
{!LANG-451feea656c821c7677c9c96020c84fe!}
{!LANG-8c46bd9ee36174bf6b3b79c45a5e2039!}
{!LANG-2511adfb5eae655340ac8818afc9ec21!}
{!LANG-e54643455a5994fc4b7c6a745a53ccae!}

50.

{!LANG-a5285083eb6d9dd59c0c9412c830332a!}
{!LANG-8eee85b1fbba49e44ee8370b4dd174c2!}
{!LANG-43b7e5d3c33413421c848e5f29df7876!}
{!LANG-f51d6fddd86b2b81e543ff057211638e!}
{!LANG-a0cff12db44c78ed0bf4fb9b8e4554ce!}
{!LANG-0c1db5bd7960a4a3aa892603f47c0e8b!}
{!LANG-f3a65d2a043f7f1694aa57aaff04b886!}
{!LANG-dd590164d77b1cc78282ac145fdea5f9!}
{!LANG-28393a12f73980d419bde5edfa1c04f3!}
{!LANG-86f6fa3d03912c589cb7c5a378ca1fa3!}
{!LANG-8cc1662b13bc593dde24e55cd24c105d!}
{!LANG-e24715135058c5cbcf93aec63145adc2!}
{!LANG-9204df6941fcab87357e4c59abe712ee!}
{!LANG-f9addccc6673f4ba17d1d07c566aaec1!}
{!LANG-85b3aeadcca9dc6ea4b935437be78d24!}
{!LANG-819abee5e5c71c595a027d6b9516fd0e!}
{!LANG-c98afce17328c0ae01669ea2ba236f06!}
_

51.

{!LANG-2734a7f7115aa654980a94672a7306aa!}
{!LANG-22b44c1f4c81b7ee6769186ee444af87!}
{!LANG-f0a5a44796c3c989be8eb29d46988f6f!}
in
{!LANG-29149910df37cff1051b2fa9653ac20b!}
{!LANG-ebeb93025ffedd1d6c53557cb8bb9aa0!}
{!LANG-50e9525fc4f243729ae94e8b0ec1c67c!}
{!LANG-0d52197cb4e360484261f1021c43030f!}
{!LANG-03abe8e11ffa952055b34bf3868983eb!}
{!LANG-6aff6688f973587e240bf84770e3cc8a!}
{!LANG-b4fe304ed76f77076b73ae79a2e33154!}
{!LANG-ebddb8b5e36a3bb8fb41607a8d500cfc!}
{!LANG-29bf48ab7b2e16eda70339d28dea24ca!}
{!LANG-0c45b1f24238f7135f9dac085c89761c!}

{!LANG-aa0554131e2d37c3ccaddfb013f62060!}

{!LANG-e112745f5768be7da1a37e560839b77e!}
Department of Biochemistry
Discipline: Biochemistry
{!LANG-c8d99cd833d816aa07339686f655af9c!}
{!LANG-95dfc6f6e85a332f812556e92ae73bab!}
Lecturer: Gavrilov I.V.
{!LANG-d9c317acaa24b7f17791885d04198ad3!}
Course: 2.
Yekaterinburg, 2016.

{!LANG-5f15e12c5016f0aeb7b61b4cf6e53157!}

{!LANG-c96f16db7d0a76ef7fbe40022e2f81ea!}
{!LANG-a03bee0a12dc0ed761142f2cfad4edcd!}
{!LANG-f812f3f2128f6d79051a33ade8857261!}
{!LANG-2d83e1e7c44f9706dd3fcc9fd4699c15!}
{!LANG-67ddb8b67972907667aee31b0c7e5332!}
{!LANG-46fd8c2e14f32425c0df5d45cdc9debd!}
{!LANG-cddd85f123b396b474ab362c4bf9244c!}
{!LANG-bbf3e7369555c2831b4ec3d15c568ba7!}
{!LANG-fd50598f42b2e77f377f4c911e0e8ba1!}
{!LANG-f31689b65e1808c2297e33a662d36952!}

54.

{!LANG-175a10b0a7bdb0eeedb0112454c3a5f5!}
{!LANG-a178049a4890284d61229e2c3a74c276!}
{!LANG-ac3892625b131dc4a4e8e1ff605c4fa0!}
{!LANG-dfd0f68c87bcafdc2f89b11f6c02e24b!}
{!LANG-20935fe54c7f128be14408befcb0e04f!}
{!LANG-ad650db9a7fb626e03a10cfb2eeb27c7!}
{!LANG-e5926aa02f243c4f21bd1622883d2da8!}
{!LANG-566039266f9551a00df23921ecd063df!}
{!LANG-e6293343ed0dc8ec3832e4c5816c6aeb!}

{!LANG-6e3907ad8ad862d9fe39892301afd971!}

{!LANG-b5d2ad161db20f951627e178ab2c14c7!}
{!LANG-e0bedc7264656ae997316cecfa6fd303!}
{!LANG-21e49a74dbd8b1d7e3476f436202b7a3!}
{!LANG-b496b402ccadb5d1a5c42228d5be58f5!}
{!LANG-6e740ee086a6d5bebb869fa65d156298!}
{!LANG-ec26efd75bf03610869fc2c11261311b!}
{!LANG-5728339acee08eeff6a9d0719754aaa2!}
{!LANG-5a9eb6c3837ea1da290a748353105ecf!}
{!LANG-b7629604c85a341fdf8a74f28cb648b2!}
{!LANG-d19bc9784cf826dc800305c48b811a7e!}
{!LANG-03167a2c308e67cf31121513b6b42f13!}
{!LANG-3cee78d68ab7e4d74543c8b722351636!}
{!LANG-3ad8532348f2e9a4017660cf5fdf1cdf!}
{!LANG-c0c878c23741a2fb648cb3486ff4b2b8!}
{!LANG-060f10912281e781c65e5a40f4e428a9!}
{!LANG-667e74d073da989a8773f10583d632af!}

{!LANG-38187ec75f5cb411b91e881d5b8d2ac6!}

{!LANG-b0a3a32679572f2daff923e1762e7529!}
{!LANG-29115858a12deebeca81ce14abfe05c6!}
{!LANG-bd16ee9317057c43eea6ad3fcc8c8dbf!}
{!LANG-daf32d8fcb1d9f7cb2ef722b8d0f5ea1!}
{!LANG-dc5b1d8cf2e2adc81ee553c3fa33e1da!}
{!LANG-d4372fddd07d23f50397b92a09da0ae4!}
{!LANG-ca3f8c4f2287d03edcd535d15e4ca934!}
{!LANG-05a90ae900e8ae232c1eb4fb44430f6e!}
{!LANG-473644d5d790c468472cd71170782973!}

57.

{!LANG-6ced00120c987b1f861772d984bbf72e!}
{!LANG-0574413ac2996de56f705ca5e6dd2e32!}
{!LANG-c0e25dccbaa43aef601e1425ca8ffaa6!}
{!LANG-58f9ef25686adab2bac150e801d0bd2b!}
{!LANG-5ae26958e0c99ec27bf9c901e7cf7200!}
{!LANG-823f5149e9f6a9d8029d0b6fbf24590e!}
{!LANG-79f77ba17c40ffce227589731413c16b!}
{!LANG-8ee5d5e21bfd4b7c9de02b9dd59bb2d9!}
{!LANG-15358980926cea001d81030d55f12b63!}
{!LANG-ed4f47499f601c9b81f8375a2939ca01!}
{!LANG-555be6df1e386d78030bc84a09fc390b!}
{!LANG-4bb019026777ed0a6157026a59916eae!}
{!LANG-32ec1856cdd8d1b5e14e40e18f5a2102!}
{!LANG-770ba76ed50fdff07bf967b94794c6d7!}
{!LANG-b9e959d829f9477b4b947ef0a665bd0b!}
{!LANG-182191a75ff7457851413e1392dbe5da!}
{!LANG-5abf00e5bd724ef72f634137c0d42427!}
{!LANG-2c1a3284b29015c13c2ddc63d37e5cd9!}
{!LANG-cf1ecee543e180a328d85c2edda0f34e!}
-

58.

{!LANG-2d9ffeab056fd5d7cf0f36a923876d70!}
{!LANG-029f5593837479f28a8c0ca9b17d8a46!}
{!LANG-9937a673a54cc276670a1046c231bd1c!}
{!LANG-0b919402366c98b553a68606a5f3a6cc!}
{!LANG-1b6082d2ad99527e250ba6391ea0f227!}
{!LANG-3f8dfd3bd489f951f11b67204482ac9f!}
{!LANG-b25793cd2331c725b87d949d9269e72f!}
{!LANG-4de0ee7752fe5d0800ce7ccf586f76e1!}
{!LANG-4d72b7360c8ccfcad3155204957626db!}
{!LANG-9241ff82a09bc20700af8a805bb828eb!}
{!LANG-db368b96f3a5e92a4f7a49d102933a7b!}
{!LANG-9a7f579ca8608e6e7a40044f6cc92e44!}
{!LANG-e8564da130e4557c1e6d1af7b7dd6dee!}
{!LANG-702e5d68deb481d020a99fad451dddba!}
{!LANG-fa72166c43e3fc69b887dbeb460b81a7!}

59.

{!LANG-3e5c0ec5a6f4895a31a815fbd5c12ef1!}
{!LANG-19988ebbd1db48529660b87cea3ca28d!}
{!LANG-d8747de916b7624fa0a192a0e0d8c288!}
{!LANG-02119274f0c70e9762e4c2368e1cac02!}
{!LANG-6977a1273b0fa2b07951c5805bf4d3fa!}
{!LANG-e5b98d81086ce7c13ebed89e7cdb914f!}

{!LANG-dd56c1c0f633258ee173cc5ad9ac8cdf!}

{!LANG-6a9648095dba3f3edae83eb6993ada21!}
{!LANG-53fcd8cd146f0747f58e506af217f684!}
{!LANG-7f31e77ba97bc5de803565c300ca00e3!}
{!LANG-0968ce565c4c2e32776d7343adc9c061!}
{!LANG-8ccfe0590463f17084d9056ce842ecff!}
{!LANG-603b67f10ab9dde04ddc23b10ddd4524!}
{!LANG-c6b7c905c4f2f265740540553c5967b2!}
{!LANG-7802ada6a55f445c55313ac5426db9d8!}
{!LANG-942cf756c357d34a4592c10f326599cf!}
{!LANG-e0f0f54b8f50ee3dd87c15ed944b1d33!}
{!LANG-d3c3ca8f7660f06bd60bf10c0ae010a2!}
{!LANG-f57b69a517f1d37770c658e9f5ab8bb2!}

{!LANG-6e2a2c9ddd040632bf191148b81158b2!}

{!LANG-625078f585343c5037c7cbbf3cc0423d!}
{!LANG-bfaa53048fc190fedbb356d4d5b82ac3!}
{!LANG-5df025fff49ed40caaa23bc6da70b54f!}
{!LANG-8c4b8792e49029e552ef6f1f2cc4697b!}
{!LANG-f24b537251532baf96adbd44f1095b7b!}
{!LANG-e2d5f7feb96cffbabefb763e48234148!}
{!LANG-c148a328f827f3ed9c0be78beb75982b!}

{!LANG-94edb7d16c99583689a8e325f4500bf7!}

{!LANG-27f10a857dd46c0477013a6048d46d5e!}
{!LANG-949e82ab5dff59e5010641b2ad840461!}
{!LANG-0e669d03b7c653c7df8fb967d472d0c8!}
{!LANG-ba110a61ff555c3452fdb50adc35ce39!}
{!LANG-8d76615457dd122cb161a945212ef4db!}
{!LANG-eeddfb84edb7bb3db356730f4bddeef3!}
{!LANG-9a5862b2f06520406eeb2220b193b0d8!}
{!LANG-20e3010bfad9b7e9e424013751632806!}
{!LANG-ecced71e15a2e85899b61d36a9ffa66c!}
2
1
{!LANG-47b3920c35171cb42516042eddb6b411!}
{!LANG-a884d6932dd59f4cb6a2dc44882f1adc!}
3
{!LANG-19b5bf5e1511ac26a9410ad190a1a762!}
{!LANG-637e1307d538c037b7cff16b883ed287!}

63.

{!LANG-8af329dc9657e5ec7804e3b73658214c!}
{!LANG-eb6a113b4ac40f30351e7bd49bb36680!}
{!LANG-28fc9e2146e5b5e7ccbe489278d85322!}
{!LANG-7eba76c85b526d826c5b26ff7d85e6eb!}
{!LANG-1509bbf352cf477abd2a7e99e27b88ea!}
{!LANG-b97486012cf08866083454e7cafc7070!}
{!LANG-3597b93b1b47f7bf851ad7c2cc223561!}
{!LANG-3597b93b1b47f7bf851ad7c2cc223561!}
{!LANG-a77c22a6750576f09bffd7b73d34b175!}
{!LANG-a77c22a6750576f09bffd7b73d34b175!}
{!LANG-5bc52b279617af849d4cd186c40f019c!}
{!LANG-5bc52b279617af849d4cd186c40f019c!}
{!LANG-22a70811d6bd786c94e288d5d1bdf8d1!}
{!LANG-123de74a18e5a4807c3535aed53b68f2!}
{!LANG-fef9d41863e92c8b125df2fe8a9b2323!}
{!LANG-b78ff11efb55e131508e070050ff78a9!}
{!LANG-0f03f23251c999665e3f3a2b8db29074!}
{!LANG-4d1a87437f76579b391228245df1df11!}
{!LANG-07c74863e6384ca6ffef3d34e831f5b8!}
{!LANG-c4cc9492914d5103d197bee2b0dde689!}

{!LANG-369ca34e164f4b1c182963cb4cdd2af2!}

{!LANG-b7c2d7871b84e2ad67fee75b3c4fee7e!}
{!LANG-49b620de39f9f8a61b9e2bf3f4b6dd6c!}
{!LANG-81df21fcdc1702ad17a73ba3b248c70c!}
{!LANG-96e1623b8d1e596b9d2fcda385010184!}
{!LANG-28984f805df8aa287d08de02c82802d7!}
{!LANG-1fd0046adaae687e1c021d678faea1d4!}
{!LANG-5e2dbc6ba7560b5b6dc3f5137cd836be!}
{!LANG-fce10da67f1acd30832c18ae8d6ec0fc!}
{!LANG-8b5ed375dba45796ba6a4a53dc85f6f7!}
{!LANG-4da65cb0e173cd41701ef770fc4c8558!}
{!LANG-63818b2f9002ca7830a2f38a646a6d2c!}

{!LANG-6618b553d87d5edcac0beac8d9906e63!}

{!LANG-0d9d3325595762439740b47ecc3e4995!}
CNS.
{!LANG-b5d4b4fcdb07e04cfe28afed498429b4!}
Hypothalamus
Vasopressin
Pituitary
{!LANG-d95218e3d691c8452c79776d2f6e257d!}
{!LANG-75671e2b66fb811a75c3f1786b4982a7!}
{!LANG-107501b80bb63b6456714f6e8eb4b6d2!}
Adrenalin
{!LANG-f8937c584c0d434b597a2924698fef76!}
{!LANG-7d2adea6e770124b56bb477ddba930c3!}
{!LANG-d3855a8140e55f68ea5540dd02be8373!}
{!LANG-5256fa62596ab453f63e5d03b6ee948e!}
{!LANG-75671e2b66fb811a75c3f1786b4982a7!}
{!LANG-107501b80bb63b6456714f6e8eb4b6d2!}
{!LANG-89a3b515f13f682e480292d306b347d9!}
{!LANG-dd639c18ee8e1ebc4214430bb4552309!}
{!LANG-15f21996a3a7112c7518d1174186abc7!}
Hormones
{!LANG-95d290b4cab9a444c6916c9e2b8a22b6!}
{!LANG-d9cade7a1b07f7c40c4e62542f3d6309!}
Tabs Mishenia
{!LANG-72bcb06e714e5c15ee09fac859e08701!}
{!LANG-7fb096110cbc042c9b92178a44f5ca44!}
{!LANG-39c52dd77ade9daa249d38d84dbc350a!}

66.

{!LANG-27f10a857dd46c0477013a6048d46d5e!}
{!LANG-5fb482de0e1b3e397acc5ea6218a0562!}
{!LANG-b5b3f5d8e3c161f98a99bbd37b0b2816!}
{!LANG-763810252d3415aba3e1ce1f89beaac2!}
{!LANG-c0d60d24bc4ea77f2f93e074120b3a9b!}
{!LANG-28fc9e2146e5b5e7ccbe489278d85322!}
{!LANG-49f42811a9d011e668add4e6c6dcf782!}
{!LANG-eb213ce3585e3b25a116d902a9cc7836!}
{!LANG-ac9607d24fc447c040af4678f375ac01!}
{!LANG-17e40d7d7e9c2c4780eca820af08d86c!}
{!LANG-1509bbf352cf477abd2a7e99e27b88ea!}
{!LANG-56e14ac20c33ffee06a4698203e2ae57!}
{!LANG-54614487170142c02310502e09183afd!}
{!LANG-58cc9ffcef8df8f3c5da48301fffc189!}
{!LANG-a9a43182a13901a3262f173b48adfb19!}
{!LANG-94cea818ad6b9d13d04522e2718cba23!}
{!LANG-48578b2b5bff557247a97ca5a997a106!}
{!LANG-1241ab73285ce274f1d248544c2013fa!}
{!LANG-c86b5ded7707b868f223f25717317e81!}
{!LANG-c457c7d66c7346dfd2bd85943775190f!}
{!LANG-981256885e2ee674d08933379e0e4f97!}
{!LANG-51bfba79646cf4ab9d944f336ecc73b9!}
{!LANG-d69d42f16aced25574871e4244ef72ad!}
{!LANG-77e57b45059688be88d6d5f82f4ec535!}
{!LANG-db360724b4643bb6e7578fa39eece411!}
{!LANG-ab7b56b25f4df0c72a0cac559c145eb9!}
{!LANG-7fae08688146d50f3be6af7c5fb6a355!}
{!LANG-4232093323530f9cb77c6a49f2966e25!}

{!LANG-997a81e585dce90f88f0ba15672c82f8!}

{!LANG-c289cd55fa9bfec4f9762cc9651e9a87!}

68.

{!LANG-fc4fdc540c9cad59ce36164d08758a16!}
Oh.
Noraderenalin
Oh.
{!LANG-e39761bf800988a2f2a0da732e7ede1f!}
Oh.
Fe2 +.
CH 2.
HC.
Coool
Tir
Oh.
Oh.
HC.
2+
{!LANG-a7f2aac199959f8ed52cf51668cc3a8b!}
CH 2.
NH 2.
Coool
{!LANG-e39761bf800988a2f2a0da732e7ede1f!}
Oh.
Oh.
H2C.
NH 2.
Dopamine
Oh.
Oh.
WIT. FROM
B6.
CH 2.
NH 2.
CO2.
{!LANG-e7473816a400926fde1996119c7e9be0!}
HC.
IS HE
HC.
H2C.
NH 2.
H2C.
Noraderenalin
Dof
{!LANG-1e72f713c43bfa8f504286ee0e58ee53!}
IS HE
{!LANG-d67918e717733fd581e254b0f112c53b!}
adrenalin
MethylTransferaza

69.

{!LANG-56590679309c386363ec3b69e7602c1a!}
{!LANG-f8937c584c0d434b597a2924698fef76!}
Adrenalin
++++
+++
++++
++
++
++
{!LANG-253e49a7dca384a69130abc52bedb43f!}
{!LANG-d847199b004fd4f2dc621b6c05760189!}
+++
+++
++++
{!LANG-4e617323278c19d24b2ad06a72707fda!}
{!LANG-bb22b2e02c9acf61c0b0af6df39011ed!}
{!LANG-091bf7a79f893d5bf8ec7d437981b082!}
{!LANG-1449e27cd250fc637569c1035251e487!}
{!LANG-c9c6cba7044e035e64d5cbcc020b9b15!}
+++
++
+
+
+
+++
-
---
{!LANG-211c79d51132555c9a148efdfb1992d8!}
{!LANG-d44f2f0c9b1e480d6612b71a640c621b!}
{!LANG-a84445a51f0a521d510c75b4ab0516a5!}
{!LANG-d34f5a83d571be5f2025444e31deafe6!}
{!LANG-5b09e22b7d74b9955b9e190a26da63f9!}
{!LANG-515854ae5083eaa62b91bd53dc3d96a2!}
-
+
-
+

{!LANG-da85dd5a926c0faa50030d27f01fae69!}

{!LANG-4b194950ed0e8097c54661a628e624d2!}
{!LANG-2b917d375e0849261796ef8238129f39!}
{!LANG-1ff42fe9de7b761a80384db1b33b24d9!}
{!LANG-763dbfcfab34a3a850353ba8e5707912!}
{!LANG-8ad0e6c2a94fd3f2dff51cb1a29d58e1!}
{!LANG-1278a7d950e277fce66bd279f910aae8!}
{!LANG-37679feed30665cd93b77519e10aeed6!}
{!LANG-5d0dfdb5d345c31163de4ddb51fb410a!}
{!LANG-b5168a8a04181f9574375d612bf73acb!}
{!LANG-24333d0cf7f58f49e752957bfac987a8!}

71.

{!LANG-a608231b89dfe019dea0b6440d9c2e13!}
{!LANG-6ab93b28caec780cd50abfaf340ebd4d!}

72.

{!LANG-578bdf0f694def517edaaee5f0020624!}
{!LANG-b16c20de29ed5119ddf04dffedcc8d83!}
{!LANG-a8f221e3453b1b1196643104e9276be4!}
Dopamine
{!LANG-4d4a8631ff649e8a1a56d939eef6df3b!}
{!LANG-e6b5dd1acc9b5fb44805cd41db4366c1!}
{!LANG-02a1961ffb0e9214803613a2d706f61c!}
{!LANG-017605f1792ce82b4abaf7de038a422f!}

73.

{!LANG-7e27252bc2acf2592def2c3df7fc76b4!}
{!LANG-a83dfd86283e4fffa2dede56052203c9!}
{!LANG-6bb57c92caa4ab40be997724c5fe0477!}
{!LANG-6a71dffe98f23a970a8b6cf699c51aec!}
{!LANG-7d2adea6e770124b56bb477ddba930c3!}
{!LANG-aa6e018d4eb98b029292ccb136364535!}
{!LANG-68090829b2d61292dbd33580aa39ce84!}
{!LANG-8fdd568f5b02b744531a40a3074eaac3!}
{!LANG-d67e09e4b7e1a5572f67a40cdbc30618!}
{!LANG-4c75b9aa5006e96762b6473ff63a94e0!}
{!LANG-1001a29ee43bc98805b79b61cbc26028!}
{!LANG-3ae5abc11844ca3837971a936f273272!}
{!LANG-b8f2a9cc48188ad32a52933a457065d0!}
{!LANG-87511607f44803272806bee44965aa49!}
{!LANG-7044a7efeee91ff8c51d26de58c0e027!}
{!LANG-7aca439d4cb7d344f32c17388a7d8cf5!}

{!LANG-d1fd411d388f3f2848104bd050d0fd8d!}

{!LANG-8fb6a90e6d09faeea016888a2ab13a64!}
{!LANG-b039f630c95a8d1c0118022a13e356f1!}
{!LANG-e9516cd3e174450c7516cd5e891b3a71!}
{!LANG-a7b068c43e2f50dc44d36ee751d51bc9!}
{!LANG-41a6973da3fac6d526c7b2ec9c1f3871!}
{!LANG-d3058cfd1a45c56ca6cdcec8e5148615!}
{!LANG-a620c571441e6ed3a33cd04b04b18dca!}
2
{!LANG-dd32e335ea60322ba6529c9ef33e0d24!}
{!LANG-4326b75d13616ecf6ff1a6ae7511c96d!}
{!LANG-7d2adea6e770124b56bb477ddba930c3!}
11
12
1 19
10
5
3
4
17
13
9
14
8
7
6
Cholesterol
24
22
18 21
20
23
25
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
26
27
16
15
{!LANG-f3190b68a44bb6510ef6193e6c9b8436!}
{!LANG-b15b4ff8a9785985159c234e5c757f5e!}
HO.
Prognenolon

{!LANG-4fba72d59d2bdbf9c33aab19ae18f14d!}

{!LANG-72493936d9e13bb2bcf6c34919a52d4b!}
With O.
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
{!LANG-a6f4814566529af43fd5ebb8625e2de4!}
HO.
{!LANG-ffad11fac29772830e50c7e7a89348e7!}
Prognenolon
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
IS HE
O.
Progesterone
{!LANG-1b70689ab66731cc70d9fa129778730b!}
{!LANG-a23743e84990f5e0e2c8ec3de740f020!}
O.
O.
{!LANG-ea6947b54f69f17f54b794ec68650656!}
{!LANG-9ebdd3bcdee5fce4f436e0880fb9c54f!}
With O.
{!LANG-1b70689ab66731cc70d9fa129778730b!}
{!LANG-7c19fcdc6fe33ef96ee0703a23005667!}
{!LANG-01a8b76d0ad72df7ede21cef96c87656!}
{!LANG-ecef8ea25acd2d2558694a88e991530f!}
{!LANG-ca00cc2d0e568a918b5b6d1e6ca67cb7!}
{!LANG-9ebdd3bcdee5fce4f436e0880fb9c54f!}
With O.
IS HE
O.
O.
{!LANG-045c6d3e2d533936c345f474a6e09c31!}
{!LANG-3d4e558b663b1f456ebf761af20cbb00!}
{!LANG-86e2d2c3247675885dc07a2672acb6f8!}
{!LANG-375fe4fd3448a7e1f21f439701ddfa79!}
O.
HO.
{!LANG-9ebdd3bcdee5fce4f436e0880fb9c54f!}
With O.
{!LANG-2a9af26eb627d0038fa4d779c9d8da2e!}
With O.
{!LANG-bd42850021b2f68659ad8ac859cec18a!}
{!LANG-2d8d3e69655887d3529432aa21fc8b88!}
{!LANG-be072de89063dcdb6b2467de3ed493dc!}
{!LANG-fd70f2a5592a137181b9a5c9e2daaf8a!}
1
Corticosterone
{!LANG-a2dec766826580e155ba891c6bfbcecf!}
{!LANG-86e2d2c3247675885dc07a2672acb6f8!}
Cortisol
HO.
{!LANG-9ebdd3bcdee5fce4f436e0880fb9c54f!}
{!LANG-152ae289c33d43c9b1234506529daaad!}
{!LANG-3d93f8073342b99b4d7921429f0b66cc!}
{!LANG-fd70f2a5592a137181b9a5c9e2daaf8a!}
O.
Aldosterone

{!LANG-6297a86f07f76929a05c79f9b44069fc!}

{!LANG-5bf946477c1ee61d6a4fdd14ac0a1105!}
{!LANG-a5baa0b78d377c648f35c20db095d215!}
{!LANG-e51c841b03dbc83f5068839c671d2c81!}
{!LANG-9456e4484f997983029e561c93dd391c!}
{!LANG-624830e6c72a4b24ae519753157b0bb2!}
{!LANG-79ee7353f74c19c3572ba1df3599d9f7!}
{!LANG-dddc67aef9942f1f20a4ab69bf207a49!}
{!LANG-6d580271800d45086825782d59c8d9c8!}
{!LANG-bcf16d2ecad0cbb08237ce8c58b6b045!}
{!LANG-7bd416d911674613ac23ceb97b0c9af7!}
{!LANG-1f032327ca0d37545326d881bc74a4d1!}

{!LANG-9038900f43165688cf2d01bf06586d19!}

{!LANG-02219338ba7113b110b2d98cb7402e5d!}
{!LANG-d7a3024ee3d0559c558bc1472fa8d469!}
{!LANG-cabe585aac4dc311e4a7b9235fb0e895!}
{!LANG-2f8a9e43ec1eb992f9fa272001d08153!}
{!LANG-ff7c7dbb01344d8eb6947b439af257ec!}
{!LANG-22e4d70a9ad077850fead84d824f4c85!}
{!LANG-48f1ce484e62d6c08643609f925d966b!}
{!LANG-d5dd2fc5939af566cd5643d352ddbb76!}
{!LANG-3beecd591ba4b17dfdedb7e690465c3c!}
{!LANG-f7c8af863719cf367e963284bf9b2825!}
{!LANG-f87979fb0e0cba557d052d1d8175edb8!}
{!LANG-81c1e491c50baab75c7fd6bef26eaa76!}
{!LANG-ae6f2950141ae2bd8dec2099cf197c94!}
{!LANG-51a12e67c7b80e79c6440540be2755d7!}
{!LANG-150f5e77676e6aab8465abf0d242e9cb!}

{!LANG-bdfcdc9b2fc2ea2f1b2c98db02a83094!}

{!LANG-65c60046115879e42833401d9b895251!}

{!LANG-361e499083769520d7d6bc218a9c00b0!}
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
{!LANG-256f8e9322ec7d40255160460a0b25c3!}
{!LANG-b41b98e029c29ac5d47d0f55516a895f!}
{!LANG-0096e281eac12c26548ab60528b31062!}
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
{!LANG-1b70689ab66731cc70d9fa129778730b!}
HO.
Prognenolon
{!LANG-8ca20ace45833050cfbb237aa53024e8!}
O.
{!LANG-1b70689ab66731cc70d9fa129778730b!}
{!LANG-909d3bbd743bc46f642cf54677e5a300!}
Progesterone
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
IS HE
HO.
{!LANG-e364c3616565cbf4fb3a46914c5222b4!}
With O.
IS HE
O.
{!LANG-783522c139fbb33b063f6405b8d44a0b!}
{!LANG-ea6947b54f69f17f54b794ec68650656!}
{!LANG-7ecc8fe5e68744d7510c020c83f59305!}
{!LANG-7ecc8fe5e68744d7510c020c83f59305!}
HO.
{!LANG-caded18cd2d505ef95fda97c08e56655!}
{!LANG-86e2d2c3247675885dc07a2672acb6f8!}
{!LANG-22384f08aa779cbec08922bd0a9c2118!}
{!LANG-d5eecacc5f776bc681368b8fc13d73d5!}
{!LANG-909d3bbd743bc46f642cf54677e5a300!}
{!LANG-00b2da9186fde1725ec917bedd5108be!}
{!LANG-63908ac4ab369898a2f7a0b0fad65e62!}
{!LANG-d5eecacc5f776bc681368b8fc13d73d5!}
{!LANG-ddd9bfac23f867b713ec6e2db8e0aa79!}
IS HE
HO.
O.
{!LANG-db2d76a61c5988f1a5984607d257be45!}
{!LANG-ddd9bfac23f867b713ec6e2db8e0aa79!}
IS HE
O.
{!LANG-b9b61c00e5d67cf7bab25694fdd07391!}
IS HE
{!LANG-ddd9bfac23f867b713ec6e2db8e0aa79!}
HO.
Estradiol

{!LANG-944948ecc5a8a246110e87db394ac84e!}

-
Hypothalamus
{!LANG-8d5c26abe9708f70ca01a3ac86b7a5c8!}
+
-
{!LANG-705e91c33d4aa57b51f8a29d697f0675!}
-
{!LANG-d5f7c4345e301028a11690b84d883bf2!}
FSH.
+
{!LANG-de3fb974fa7522bb28de15f241f39b32!}
{!LANG-0c42db32d3eda69e22590443d5520313!}
{!LANG-277c2f3985d428b4350e6940e47e7f10!}
+
{!LANG-de3fb974fa7522bb28de15f241f39b32!}
{!LANG-1ad969bd63e4a704b8cdb8886ca162fc!}
{!LANG-e9b08371828f924b9708b1da9ce08bd7!}
+
{!LANG-7131ede8e265e1ec32894a3d5e1d40d6!}

{!LANG-07f885564faf4b13a9dfc6724d195e6e!}

+
-
Hypothalamus
{!LANG-8d5c26abe9708f70ca01a3ac86b7a5c8!}
+
-
-
{!LANG-d5f7c4345e301028a11690b84d883bf2!}
FSH.
{!LANG-277c2f3985d428b4350e6940e47e7f10!}
+
+
{!LANG-4091d98770be2c30e8a3e1fb89c67f06!}
{!LANG-c763aed7d7bbcffbd48728934c5b7274!}
{!LANG-efc260befcf0e6afa6f9c850f7f95376!}
{!LANG-c7baa3949696c090c0a5c50fdeef36a4!}

{!LANG-9374d1fb575bce297df100067bf980d7!}

{!LANG-998fbbf9e5abfaad2d8a242385c5c834!}
{!LANG-32d4fa36dd0a97d8b7dfc6a266953c9f!}
{!LANG-8619dc6835ec8120c600fbb51ed63eb0!}
{!LANG-9e07c6c7b809a027bc104d9793e78e78!}
{!LANG-888fe78b2e4f8cac1693da147b584cfd!}
{!LANG-0a137623a3b83f4ff4a9eee3dc354faa!}

83.

{!LANG-19ce008ef52223271cbe8de81760d690!}
{!LANG-17d82ac8624c78f3c0ee0e7ebccfacf4!}
{!LANG-d96ea9d5b1bf260a739b81bd030ee6b0!}
{!LANG-207ccdebf734156436b41601190aa484!}
{!LANG-a70b9c965d5db7c7fc251c5ddd8d6579!}
{!LANG-db68db8952d8ba1cd5dea25623ee5575!}
{!LANG-0f9fd0ac8cd4a18cae22c4efbcc31a49!}
{!LANG-659403bb3de5502d6e9cdcaf1986078b!}
{!LANG-fbbc0681fde67d1a379ea6a3c5638951!}
{!LANG-17d9290c69d51cb215820b707b202beb!}
{!LANG-9b160ccaa3db89989fed1c762cc39831!}
{!LANG-c8080a53cf681070a0874a397498cbe4!}
{!LANG-dd9f895d88a64c32b0424ae5bf691c04!}
{!LANG-6cd315d4c11850deda91b37193198439!}

84.

{!LANG-a4a39233cc622328aa671b05d1c25225!}
{!LANG-aafb5f3ebc6e6c71c9a605d6bfc84f9e!}
{!LANG-26420f434d65c748bd53339c4acf412b!}
{!LANG-d2714f6cd2886ccf562a939d80b348b0!}
{!LANG-8bb333af5361a264ea033563e573fd21!}
{!LANG-046700ea86c3381c64b98db7fd83a8b8!}
{!LANG-9bd876a513c8a353548f2cce09eae681!}
{!LANG-ccbd96628c3822fbc2fa882a76239f61!}
{!LANG-6359d2de1c7f46544defcc37577fa960!}
{!LANG-86c10a8b9b539b4537e2d7082aa3abd7!}
{!LANG-feacf4fe10176ad21c8338cf95f92340!}
{!LANG-a2de6ef89ce1b70ccf7734862eb92427!}
{!LANG-23b1a4581769cd388c7ae7d167b2847e!}
{!LANG-2f4fabeeb20a13a176fbf969ddd00f87!}

{!LANG-bee02087109dcb4b8becce31350b31b3!}

{!LANG-e564af453cd377f4895d296e6f0f05b2!}
–
{!LANG-fc46bdb48f6ed95bba8a8c15f87fd0e8!}
hormone
{!LANG-6e206b8af3aaeb4f023b76d12d95e538!}
{!LANG-cc311c71fc8691ced0004b6d473eee77!}
{!LANG-c1e34b0bf38a526d1de9e9d458f77b20!}
{!LANG-ed8267653f60aa13349285d532c99b6a!}
{!LANG-94f80cb52381f2a7d8917afc382ffe55!}
{!LANG-06a8877f8bed6a63ed369a3b90becfb7!}
{!LANG-496a6df5f7a1f3667f829d12f1cc1344!}
{!LANG-f66a0ab27700b9342c92a2efcfe7177a!}
as
{!LANG-ac5f38579da524e71fbfd40c622fc5d5!}
{!LANG-58fae7cee52404ec3d2f0d7875ef58b7!}
{!LANG-958c0b7cdb876afd4b5e2c461f835d27!}
{!LANG-8093edb937a167ee5e2292f0d875f2f4!}
{!LANG-60b66c9bea9a11f43cdd8f2ba445f723!}

86.

{!LANG-9831f0326be8630f5b57d2a7dc5a0ec8!}
{!LANG-20d1aa814b51cb294613a74d12e2770b!}
Hypothalamus
{!LANG-3c163f22c9c29f279ddc4678b03c74a3!}
{!LANG-0a47aedf992fcfb197c71f02598b7815!}
-
+
-
{!LANG-d5f7c4345e301028a11690b84d883bf2!}
{!LANG-72bcb06e714e5c15ee09fac859e08701!}
{!LANG-7fb096110cbc042c9b92178a44f5ca44!}
{!LANG-654f8a7dcc18be981c66ece498dea9d1!}
{!LANG-bf56d3c59a36fc2507c94e59803c9f94!}
{!LANG-9b7ae122c075cd211054d6e34ddbf962!}
{!LANG-75a075b963d7a462aceed3fef60e27dd!}
{!LANG-9b7ae122c075cd211054d6e34ddbf962!}
{!LANG-e7ea0bbe5ef238a04e57400d48359533!}
{!LANG-f159f344685a6c1a6b4a6d19106e633d!}
{!LANG-a5a0e3bb51dfb484683eec4658ca5816!}
{!LANG-5b9f4a96e5eeff65c3f16eef6af90c93!}
{!LANG-d9bc79ee6f701d8eac9dc7bea1e45887!}
{!LANG-b7215487d43e0e34d92f9f84d00c2c13!}
{!LANG-9b7ae122c075cd211054d6e34ddbf962!}
{!LANG-d9bc79ee6f701d8eac9dc7bea1e45887!}
{!LANG-b7215487d43e0e34d92f9f84d00c2c13!}

87.

{!LANG-4076dc5d9278068f44f6751b4acc7b6a!}
{!LANG-cfe7940ddf94fa9bd151ec35cd7e7f5f!}
{!LANG-39c52dd77ade9daa249d38d84dbc350a!}
{!LANG-1fe4921650e59f5412709604ec08a42d!}
{!LANG-f5b9704ca37f5c96f720d00c4068074a!}
{!LANG-07ce257ff2e245ded5733ed75df18d32!}
{!LANG-b0a034c594a9d5ec1c9dfc984d703a28!}
{!LANG-debdbbff48b9f7eb4d65e4c8793ef3be!}
{!LANG-7b58e4f09f68d4b4e79e70579374930d!}
{!LANG-b570f47f60d45ccc80df01fef5ac704d!}
{!LANG-c666b52e5e420337772516496e4bfdd1!}
{!LANG-39c52dd77ade9daa249d38d84dbc350a!}
{!LANG-debdbbff48b9f7eb4d65e4c8793ef3be!}
{!LANG-7e7907d719ba80467ad8929ff7b6d422!}
{!LANG-d4f02e2e1840e1c12cd57cf47333d935!}
{!LANG-5c25253cdc1896f5f2428f16db8c7ead!}
{!LANG-b0da1061ab08145114c34688ae18e250!}
and
quantity
{!LANG-1fa63f5fd1bfd6d8b3624eea9aee46b4!}