Mitochondria and plastists have their own ring DNA and small ribosomes, the part of their proteins themselves (semi-autonomous organides) make them.
Mitochondria takes part in (oxidation of organic substances) - supply ATP (energy) for the vital activity of the cell, are "cell power stations".
Unmamble organides
Ribosomes - These are organides that are engaged. Consist of two subunits, in chemical composition - from ribosomal RNA and proteins. Subunits are synthesized in the nucleoline. Part of the ribosomes are attached to the EPS, this EPS is called a rough (granular).
Cell Center It consists of two centrioles that form spine divisions during cell division - mitosis and meiosis.
Cilia, Flasks Serve for movement.
Select one, the most correct option. Cell cytoplasm includes
1) Protein Threads
2) cilia and flagella
3) Mitochondria
4) Cell Center and Lizosomes
Answer
Install the correspondence between the functions and organoids of cells: 1) ribosomes, 2) chloroplasts. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) are located on granular EPS
B) protein synthesis
C) photosynthesis
D) consist of two subunits
E) consist of a grain with tylacoids
E) form the polis
Answer
Set the correspondence between the structure of the cell organoid and the organoid: 1) the Golgi apparatus, 2) chloroplast. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) two-faceted organoid
B) there is own DNA
C) has a secretory apparatus
D) consists of a membrane, bubbles, tanks
E) consists of tilacoids Grand and Stromas
E) single-dimmable organoid
Answer
Set the correspondence between the characteristics and organoids of the cell: 1) chloroplast, 2) an endoplasmic network. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) the system of tubules formed by the membrane
B) organoid is formed by two membranes
C) transports substances
D) synthesize the primary organic matter
E) includes tylakoids
Answer
1. Select one, the most correct option. Single-grams cell components -
1) Chloroplasts
2) Vacuole
3) Cell Center
4) Ribosomes
Answer
2. Select three options. What cellular organides are separated from the cytoplasm of one membrane?
1) Golgi Complex
2) Mitochondria
3) Lizosoma
4) endoplasmic network
5) Chloroplast
6) Ribosoma
Answer
All signs below can be used to describe the features of the structure and functioning of ribosomes. Determine the two signs, "dropping" from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) consist of microtubule triplets
2) participate in the process of protein biosynthesis
3) form spindle divisions
4) formed by protein and RNA
5) consist of two subunits
Answer
Select two correct answers from five and record the numbers in the table under which they are specified. Choose two-paved organelles:
1) Lizosoma
2) Ribosoma
3) Mitochondria
4) Machine Golgi
5) Chloroplast
Answer
Choose three faithful response from six and record the numbers under which they are specified. Two-membrane organoids of plant cell are.
1) chromoplasts
2) Centrioles
3) leucoplars
4) Ribosomes
5) Mitochondria
6) Vacuole
Answer
Core1-Mitochondria1-Ribosoma1
Analyze the table. For each cell, marked, select the appropriate term from the proposed list:
1) kernel
2) Ribosoma
3) protein biosynthesis
4) cytoplasm
5) oxidative phosphorylation
6) Transcription
7) Lizosoma
Answer
Mitochondria2-chromosome1-ribosoma2 
Analyze the table "Eukaryotic cell structures". For each cell indicated by the letter, select the appropriate term from the proposed list.
1) Glycolizis
2) Chloroplasts
3) broadcast
4) Mitochondria
5) Transcription
6) kernel
7) cytoplasm
8) Cell Center
Answer
Lizosoma1-Ribosoma3-chloroplast1 
1) Golgi Complex
2) carbohydrate synthesis
3) single-dimmable
4) starch hydrolysis
5) Lizosoma
6) Nemmed
Answer
Lysosome2-chloroplast2-ribosome4 
Analyze the table. For each cell, labeled, select the appropriate term from the proposed list.
1) two-faceted
2) endoplasmic network
3) protein biosynthesis
4) Cell Center
5) Nemembrane
6) carbohydrate biosynthesis
7) Slight
8) Lizosoma
Answer
Lizosoma3-ag1-chloroplast3 
Analyze the table "Cage Structures". For each cell indicated by the letter, select the appropriate term from the proposed list.
1) Glycolizis
2) Lizosoma
3) protein biosynthesis
4) Mitochondria
5) Photosynthesis
6) kernel
7) cytoplasm
8) Cell Center
Answer
Chloroplast4-ag2-ribosoma5 
Analyze the table "Cage Structures". For each cell indicated by the letter, select the appropriate term from the proposed list.
1) glucose oxidation
2) Ribosoma
3) Polymer cleavage
4) Chloroplast
5) protein synthesis
6) kernel
7) cytoplasm
8) Education spine division
Answer
AG3-Mitochondria3-Lizosome4 
Analyze the "Cell Organo Organo" table. For each cell indicated by the letter, select the appropriate term from the proposed list.
1) Chloroplast
2) endoplasmic network
3) cytoplasm
4) Karioplasm
5) Golgi Device
6) biological oxidation
7) transport substances in a cell
8) glucose synthesis
Answer
1. Select two correct answers from five and write the numbers in the table under which they are specified. The cytoplasm performs a number of functions in the cell:
1) communicates between the core and organo
2) performs the role of matrix for carbohydrate synthesis
3) serves as the location of the kernel and organoids
4) transfers hereditary information
5) serves as a location of chromosomes in eukaryotes
Answer
2. Determine the two true statements from the general list, and write the numbers under which they are specified. In the cytoplasm occurs
1) Synthesis of proteins Ribosomes
2) Glucose biosynthesis
3) insulin synthesis
4) oxidation of organic substances to inorganic
5) Synthesis of ATP molecules
Answer
Select two faithful answers from five and write the numbers under which they are indicated. Choose non-smuggled organelles:
1) Mitochondria
2) Ribosoma
3) kernel
4) Microtubule
5) Golgi Device
Answer
The signs listed below, except for two, are used to describe the functions of the cell generated cell. Determine the two features, "dropping" from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) serves as an energy station
2) splits biopolymers for monomers
3) Provides packaging of substances from a cell
4) synthesize and accumulates ATP molecules
5) participates in biological oxidation
Answer
Install the correspondence between the structure of the organoid and its type: 1) Cell Center, 2) Ribosoma
A) consists of two perpendicularly located cylinders
B) consists of two subunits
C) formed by microtubes
D) Contains proteins that ensure the movement of chromosomes
E) contains proteins and nucleic acid
Answer
Install the sequence of the arrangement of the structures in the eukaryotic cell of the plant (starting outside)
1) plasma membrane
2) cell wall
3) kernel
4) cytoplasm
5) Chromosomes
Answer
Select three options. What do mitochondria differ from lysosomes?
1) have an outdoor and internal membrane
2) have numerous grown - Crysta
3) participate in energy liberation processes
4) Pirogradic acid in them is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water
5) In them, biopolymers are split to monomers
6) participate in the metabolism
Answer
1. Install the correspondence between the characteristic of the cell organoid and its type: 1) mitochondria, 2) lysosome. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) single-mounted organoid
B) internal content - matrix
D) the presence of Crysta
E) semi-autonomous organoid
Answer
2. Set the correspondence between the characteristics and organoids of the cell: 1) mitochondria, 2) lysosome. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) hydrolytic splitting of biopolymers
B) oxidative phosphorylation
C) single-mounted organoid
D) the presence of Crysta
E) formation of digestive vacuole in animals
Answer
3. Install the correspondence between the characteristic and organoid of the cell for which it is characteristic: 1) lysosome, 2) mitochondria. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) the presence of two membranes
B) energy accumulation in ATP
C) the presence of hydrolytic enzymes
D) digestion of organoid cells
E) the formation of digestive vacuoles from the simplest
E) splitting organic substances to carbon dioxide and water
Answer
Set the correspondence between the cells of the cell: 1) cellular center, 2) contractive vacuole, 3) mitochondria. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the correct order.
A) participates in cell division
B) Synthesis ATP
B) allocation of excess fluid
D) "cellular breathing"
E) maintenance of constancy of cell volume
E) participates in the development of flagella and cilia
Answer
1. Install the correspondence between the name of the organoids and the presence or absence of their cell membrane: 1) membrane, 2) non-smash. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) vacuole
B) lysosomes
C) cell center
D) Ribosomes
E) plasts
E) Golgi Device
Answer
2. Install the correspondence between the cells of the cell and their groups: 1) membrane, 2) non-empty. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) mitochondria
B) Ribosomes
C) centrioles
D) Golgi Device
E) endoplasmatic network
E) microtubules
Answer
3. What three of the listed organoids are membrane?
1) Lizosomes
2) Centrioles
3) Ribosomes
4) Microtubules
5) Vacuole
6) leucoplars
Answer
1. All the cell structures listed below, except for two, do not contain DNA. Determine the two cell structures, "dropping" from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are specified.
1) Ribosomes
2) Golgi Complex
3) Cell Center
4) Mitochondria
5) plasts
Answer
2. Choose three cells of cells containing hereditary information.
1) kernel
2) lysosomes
3) Golgi Device
4) Ribosomes
5) Mitochondria
6) Chloroplasts
Answer
3. Select two correct answers from five. In which structures of eukaryot cells are DNA molecules localized?
1) cytoplasm
2) kernel
3) Mitochondria
4) Ribosomes
5) Lizosomah
Answer
Select one, the most correct option. Where in the cell there are ribosomes, except for EPS
1) in the centralines of the cellular center
2) in the Golgi apparatus
3) in mitochondria
4) in lysosomes
Answer
What are the features of the structure and functions of ribosomes? Select three correct options.
1) have one membrane
2) consist of DNA molecules
3) split organic matter
4) consist of large and small particles
5) Participate in the protein biosynthesis process
6) consist of RNA and protein
Answer
Choose three faithful response from six and record the numbers under which they are specified. The structure of the kernel of the eukaryotic cell includes
1) Chromatin
2) Cell Center
3) Golgi Device
4) Yedryshko
5) cytoplasm
6) Karioplasm
Answer
Choose three faithful response from six and record the numbers under which they are specified. What processes occur in the cell core?
1) the formation of spindlers
2) formation of lysosomes
3) doubling DNA molecules
4) Synthesis Molecules INNA
5) Education Mitochondria
6) formation of subunits ribosomes
Answer
Set the correspondence between the cell organoid and the type of structure to which it is attributed to: 1) Singlembrane, 2) two-flash. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) Lizosoma
B) chloroplast
C) Mitochondria
D) EPS
E) Golgi Device
Answer
Install the correspondence between the characteristics and organodes: 1) chloroplast, 2) mitochondria. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) Presence of stack of the Gran
B) the synthesis of carbohydrates
C) dissimilating reactions
D) electron transport excited by photons
E) synthesis of organic substances from inorganic
E) the presence of numerous Crysta
Answer
All signs listed below, except for two, can be used to describe the cell-depicted cell. Determine the two signs, "dropping" from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) single-mounted organoid
2) contains fragments of ribosomes
3) the shell permeated
4) contains DNA molecules
5) contains mitochondria
Answer
The terms listed below, except for two, are used to characterize the cell organoid designated in the figure with a question mark. Determine the two terms "dropping" from the general list, and write the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) membrane organoid
2) Replication
3) the discrepancy of chromosomes
4) Centrioles
5) spine divisions
Answer
Set the correspondence between the characteristics of the cell organoid and its type: 1) the cell center, 2) the endoplasmic network. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) transports organic matter
B) forms spine divisions
C) consists of two centrioles
D) single-mounted organoid
E) contains ribosomes
E) non-emblem organoid
Answer
1. Install the correspondence between the characteristics and organoids of the cell: 1) the kernel, 2) mitochondria. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the numbers.
A) closed DNA molecule
B) oxidative enzymes on cristenses
C) internal content - karyoplasm
D) linear chromosomes
E) the presence of chromatin in interfax
E) folded inner membrane
Answer
2. Install the correspondence between the characteristics and cells of the cells: 1) the kernel, 2) mitochondria. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) is the site of ATF synthesis
B) responsible for storing genetic cell information
C) contains ring DNA
D) has cristes
E) has one or more nucleoli
Answer
Set the correspondence between the characteristics and organoids of the cell: 1) lysosome, 2) ribosoma. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) consists of two subunits
B) is a single-dimmable structure
C) participates in the synthesis of the polypeptide chain
D) contains hydrolytic enzymes
E) placed on the membrane of the endoplasmic network
E) turns polymers to monomers
Answer
Set the correspondence between the characteristics and cells: 1) mitochondria, 2) ribosome. Record the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) non-emblem organoid
B) presence of own DNA
C) function - protein biosynthesis
D) consists of a large and small subunit
E) the presence of Crysta
E) semi-autonomous organoid
Answer
All features listed below, except for two, are used to describe the cell structure shown in the figure. Determine the two signs, "dropping" from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) consists of RNA and proteins
2) consists of three subunits
3) synthesized in hyaloplasm
4) performs protein synthesis
5) can be attached to the EPS membrane
Answer
© DV Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019
Plasma membrane (PlasmaMalem)
The basis of all cell membranes lies double layer molecules lipid. Their hydrophobic "tails" consisting of residual fatty acid molecules are addressed inside the double layer. Outside there are hydrophilic "heads", consisting of the residue of the glycerin alcohol molecule. The composition of the membrane most often includes phospholipids and glycolipids (their molecules are the most polar), as well as fats and leafy substances (for example, cholesterol). Lipids are the basis of the membrane, provide its stability and strength, i.e. Perform a structural (construction) function. This feature is possible due to lipid hydrophobicity.
To the charged heads of lipids, with the help of electrostatic interactions are attached proteins. Membrane proteins perform structural, catalytic and transport functions. In terms of location, immersed, peripheral and penetrating proteins are distinguished. Immersed proteins are slightly immersed in a double layer of lipids and are enzymes that catalyze various biochemical reactions. Peripheral proteins are located on the surface of the dual layer of lipids. They stabilize the location of immersed proteins-enzymes. Piercing proteins permeate the membrane through and perform transport functions.
On the outer surface of the membrane are molecules carbohydrates (oligosaccharides) that perform receptor functions. Oligosaccharides perceive the factors of the outer medium of the cell and provide its reaction, change the permeability of the membrane, provide "recognition" of the cells of the same type and compound them in the tissue. The combination of oligosaccharides on the surface of the animal cell is called glycocalix.
Functions of plasma membrane
- Barrier function. The membrane limits the penetration into the cell of alien, toxic substances.
- Regulatory. Oligosaccharides located on the surface of the plasma membrane perform the role of receptors that perceive the effect of various substances and changing the permeability of the membrane.
- Catalytic. On the surface of the membranes there are numerous enzymes catalyzing biochemical reactions.
- Membrane transport. There are several types of membrane transport.
AND). Transport of large molecules organic substances, bacteria and viruses by endocytosis (penetration into a cell) or exocytosis (excluding from the cell). Endocytosis is the absorption of substances By environmenting their plasma membrane growth. At the same time, phagocytosis is distinguished (absorption of solids) and pinocytosis (liquid absorption). Phagocytosis is characteristic of single-cell organisms and for phagocytes of multicellular, which in this way ensure the destruction of foreign particles. Pinocytosis is characteristic of single-celled organisms and for intestinal epithelial cells. Exocytosis - selection of substances from the cell- carried out in the reverse order.
B). Small molecules Organic and inorganic substances, ions can flow into a cell by passive transport (diffusion) if the substance moves from the high concentration region to the low concentration region. Passive transport is carried out always without energy costs.
There are 2 types of passive transport: ordinary diffusion and light diffusion.
By ordinary diffusion move:
- fat soluble substances - directly through the membrane
- hydrophilic fine molecules (water, carbon dioxide) and ions - through protein pores, which are formed by penetrating proteins
Light diffusion is carried out with the help of special carriers proteins. Thus are transferred large hydrophilic molecules, such as glucose. Glucose is connected to a protein-carrier. A complex is formed, well-soluble in the membrane, which facilitates the penetration of glucose into the cell. The speed of light diffusion is higher than that of the usual diffusion.
IN). Transportation of substances through the membrane can be carried out and by active transport. Active transport is carried out only with energy costs, since substances are moving from a low concentration region to a high concentration area. The process of transferring sodium and potassium ions was most studied using the potassium-sodium pump.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is an internal content of the cell and consists of a basic substance (hyaloplasm), organoids and inclusions.
Galoplasmas. - Liquid (jelly-shaped) part of the cell, is a solution of organic and inorganic substances. Its functions:
- In the hyaloplasm, various substances are moved (and-RNA, T-RNA, amino acids, ATP, etc.).
- Galoplasm flows a variety of biochemical reactions.
- Galoplasma provides chemical interaction of all cellular structures and combines them into one.
- In the hyaloplasm, a variety of inclusion in the chemical composition is postponed.
Inclusion - this is non-permanent cellular structures are deposits of substances, temporarily not involved in the metabolism of cells. By chemical composition and on function functions may be different.
Examples of inclusions:
- mineral (for example, salts crystals)
- trophic (granules of proteins, polysaccharides, lipid drops)
- vitamin
- pigment (for example, pigment granules in retinal cells of the eye) and others.
Organoid. - this is permanentcellular structures that perform certain functions. Depending on the structure, cytoplasmic organides are divided into membrane organoids and non-smuggled organides.
Features of the structure and functions membrane organoids
Membrane organoids are hollow structures whose walls are formed by a single or double membrane.
- Organoisides formed by a single membrane: an endoplasmic network, a complex of the Golges, Lizosomes, vacuoles . These organides have a similar chemical composition of membranes and form an intracellular system of synthesis and vehicles of substances.
- Two-grated organoids. Their walls are formed by a double membrane. This is mitochondria (in all !!! eukaryotic cells) and plastists (only in plant cells !!!).
Single-grams organoids
1.Endoplasmic Network (EPS)
EPS is a single-dimmable organoid consisting of cavities and tubules, united between themselves. The endoplasmic network is structurally connected to the nucleus: the membrane, forming the walls of the endoplasmic network, depart from the outer membrane of the kernel. EPS is 2 species: rough (granular) and smooth (agranular). In any cell there are both types of EPS.
On membranes rough EPS Numerous small granules - ribosomes, special organoids, with which proteins are synthesized. Therefore, it is not difficult to guess that proteins are synthesized on the surface of the rough EPS, which penetrate inside the rough EPS and can move to any place of the cell in its cavities.
Membranes smooth EPS. Lained Ribosomes, but in its membranes, enzymes carrying out the synthesis of carbohydrates and lipids are built into. After synthesis, carbohydrates and lipids can also move through EPS membranes to any place of the cell The degree of development of the EPS type depends on the specialization of the cell.For example, in cells synthesizing protein hormones, granular EPS will be better developed, and in cells that synthesize zero-like substances - agranular EPS.
EPS functions:
- Synthesis of substances. Proteins are synthesized on rough EPS, and on smooth - lipids and carbohydrates.
- Transport function. By cavities EPS, synthesized substances move to any place of the cell.
2. Complex Golgi
The Golgi complex (disosome) is a stack of flat membrane bags, which are called tanks. Tanks are completely isolated from each other and do not connect with each other. Numerous tubes and bubbles are branched along the edges of the tanks. From time to time, vacuoles (bubbles) with synthesized substances are depicted from time to time, which move to the Golgi complex and are connected to it. Substances synthesized in EPS are complicated and accumulated in the Golgi complex.
Functions of the Golgi complex
- In the tanks of the Golgi complex there is a further chemical transformation and the complication of the substances received from the EPS. For example, substances needed to update the cell membrane (glycoproteins, glycolipids), polysaccharides.
- The accumulation of substances and their temporary storage take place in the Golgi complex
- The formed substances are "packaged" in bubbles (in vacuole) and in this form move through the cell.
- In the complex of the Golges, lysosomes are formed (spherical organides with splitting enzymes).
3. Lizosomes ("lysis" - decay, dissolution)
Lysosomes - small spherical organides, the walls of which are formed by a single membrane; Contain lytic (splitting) enzymes. First, lysosomes, departed from the Golgji complex, contain inactive enzymes. Under certain conditions, their enzymes are activated. When firing lysosomes with phagocytous or pinocytous vacuol, a digestive vacuoment is formed, in which intracellular digestion of various substances occurs.
Functions lysosomes:
- The splitting of substances absorbed as a result of phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Biopolymers are split up to monomers who come into the cell and are used for its needs. For example, they can be used to synthesize new organic substances or may be subjected to further cleavage to produce energy.
- Destroy old, damaged, excessively organides. The anniversary of organoids can occur during the hunger cell.
- Autolisted (splitting) of cells (squeezing of tail in tadpoles, tissue discharge in the zone of inflammation, the destruction of cartilage cells in the process of forming bone tissue, etc.).
4. Vacuoles
Vacuoles are spherical single-dimmable organides, which are water tanks and substances dissolved in it. Vacuoolas include: phagocytous and pinocytous vacuoles, digestive vacuoles, bubbles that are erected from the EPS and the Golgi complex. Vacuoles of the animal cell are small, numerous, but their volume does not exceed 5% of the total volume of the cell. Their main function is the transport of substances in the cell, the conservability of the relationship between organoids.
In the cell of plants to the share of vacuoles accounts for up to 90% of the volume. In the mature vegetable cell, the vacuol is one, occupies the central position. The vacuole membrane of the plant cell is a tonoplastic, its contents - cellular juice. Functions of vacuoles in the plant cell: maintaining the cell shell in the voltage, accumulation of various substances, including cell waste. Vacuoles supply water for photosynthesis processes.
The composition of the cell juice may include:
-spare substances that can be used by the cell itself (organic acids, amino acids, sugar, proteins).
-substances that are derived from metabolism of cells and accumulate in vacuoles (phenols, tanning substances, alkaloids, etc.)
-phytogormones, phytoncides,
-pigments (coloring substances), which give the cellular juice purple, red, blue, purple color, and sometimes yellow or cream. It is the pigments of cell juice that paint flower petals, fruits, root
Channel-vacuolar cell system (transport system and synthesis substances)
EPS, the Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles make up a single tubular-vacuolar cell system. All its elements have a similar chemical composition of membranes, so they can interact. All elements of the CCC originate from the EPS. From EPS, vacuoles arrive at the Golgi complex, bubbles merging with the cell membrane, lysosomes are packed from the Golgji complex.
The value of the CCC:
- FCC membranes share the contents of the cell to separate compartments (comp andrtthmina) in which certain processes proceed. This makes it possible to simultaneously flow into the cell of various processes, sometimes straight.
- As a result of the activities of the FCC, the cell membrane is constantly updated.
Two-grated organoids
The two-grated organoid is a hollow structure, the walls of which are formed by a double membrane. Two species of two-combed organoids are known: mitochondria and plasts. Mitochondria is characteristic of all eukaryotes, plastists are found only in plant cells. Mitochondria and plaststs are the components of the energy system of the cell, so as a result of their functioning, ATP is synthesized.
1. The structure and functions of mitochondria
Mitochondria - two-grated semi-autonomous organoid, carrying out the synthesis of ATP.
The form of mitochondria is diverse, they can be rolled, filamentous or spherical. Mitochondria walls are formed by two membranes: external and internal. The outer membrane is smooth, and the internal forms numerous folds - crysti. Numerous enzyme complexes that carry out the synthesis of ATP are built into the inner membrane.
The folding of the inner membrane is of great importance. On the folded surface can be located more enzyme complexes than on a smooth surface. The number of folds in mitochondria may vary depending on the need of cells in energy. If the cell needs energy, the number of crystas increases. Accordingly, the number of enzyme complexes located on Crystas are also increasing. As a result, a greater amount of ATP will be formed. In addition, the total amount of mitochondria may increase in the cage. If the cell does not need a large amount of energy, then the amount of mitochondria in the cell decreases and the amount of Cryst inside the mitochondria decreases.
The internal space of mitochondria is filled with an unstructured homogeneous substance (matrix). In the matrix there are ring DNA molecules, RNA and small ribosomes (like prokaryotic). The Mitochondria DNA recorded information on the structure of mitochondrial proteins. RNA and ribosomes carry out their synthesis. Ribosomes Mitochondria small, in structure they are very similar to ribosomes bacteria.. Some scientists believe that mitochondria was formed from bacteria penetrated into eukaryotic cells possible, it happened at the initial stages of the occurrence of life.
Mitochondria call semi-autonomicorganoids. This means that they depend on the cell, but at the same time retain some independence. For example, mitochondria themselves synthesize their own proteins, including the enzymes of their enzyme complexes. In addition, mitochondria can multiply by division regardless of cell division.
2. Plasts
Chloroplasts have a shell of 2 membranes. The outer shell is smooth, and the internal forms numerous bubbles (thylacoids). Stack of thylacoids - grana. Grana are located in a checker order for better penetration of sunlight. In the membranes of thylakoids, the molecules of the green pigment of chlorophyll are built, so chloroplasts are green. With the help of chlorophyll, photosynthesis is carried out. Thus, the main function of chloroplasts is the implementation of the process of photosynthesis.
The space between the grams is filled with matrix. The matrix contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes (small, like prokaryotm), lipid drops, starch grains.
Chloroplasts, as well as mitochondria, are semi-autonomous organoids of the plant cell, as they can independently synthesize their own proteins and are able to share independently of the division of the cell.
Chromoplasts - plasts having red, orange or yellow color. The color of chromoplasts give the carotenoid pigments, which are located in the matrix. Tylacoids are poorly developed or absent. The exact function of chromoplasts is unknown. Perhaps they attract animal friction friction.
The leukoplasts are colorless plastdoms, located in the cells of colorless fabrics. Tylacoids are undeveloped. Starch, lipids and proteins accumulate in leukoplasts.
The plasts can mutually turn into each other: leukoplasts - chloroplasts - chromoplasts.
Features of the structure and functions of non-smughed organoids
- Ribosome - non-emblem organoid cells carrying protein biosynthesis. Consists of two subunits - small and large. The ribosome consists of 3-4 molecules of p-RNA forming its frame, and several dozen molecules of various proteins. Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleoline. The ribosoma cells can be located on the surface of the granular EPS or in the hyaloplasm of the cell in the form of a policy. Polyesoma is a complex and RNA and several ribos, reading information from it. Ribosoma function - protein biosynthesis. If the ribosomes are located on EPS, the proteins synthesized by them are used to the needs of the entire body, the hyaloplasm ribosomes are synthesized proteins to the needs of the cell itself. Ribosomes of prokaryotic cells is smaller than ribosome eukaryotes. The same small ribosomes are in mitochondria and plastids.
- Microni. - Niti. socrate Aktin or myosin protein located in the surface layer of hyaloplasm, directly under the plasma membrane. Capable to reduction, as a result, a hyaloplasma is moving, prying or protrusion of the cell membrane, the formation of a tummy during cell division.
- Microtubule - hollow cylindrical cell structures consisting of non-worn Protein tubulin. Microtubules are not capable of abbreviation. The walls of the microtubule are formed by 13 filaments of a tubulin protein. Microtubules are located in the thickness of the hyaloplasm of cells. Microtubule functions:
- create an elastic and pretty durable cellular frame, which supports the shape of the cell.
- form the spindle dividing cells and thus participate in the distribution of chromosome during mitosis and meyosis
- provide the movement of organoids
- parts are part of the cilia, flagella, cellular center.
- Centrioles - Cylindrical structure, the walls of which are formed by 9 microtubule triplets. Centrioles are located in pairs perpendicular to each other. In the region of the centriolesale, microtubules are formed the separation of division. A combination of centrioles and microtubules spindle division is called the cellular center.
- Cilia and Flags - Motion organoids. The main function is the movement of cells or moving along the cells of their surrounding fluid or particles. In the multicellular body, the cilia is characteristic of the epithelium of the respiratory tract, uterine pipes, and flagellas - for spermatozoa. Cilia and flagellas differ only in size - harness are longer. In their basis, the microtubule, located according to system 9 (2) + 2. This means that 9 double microtubes (dupets) form the cylinder wall, in the center of which 2 single microtubules are located. The support of the cilia and flagellas are basal tales. The basal caller has a cylindrical shape, formed by 9 three (triplets) of microtubule, in the center of the basal calf, there is no microtubule.
Micright, microtubules, centrioli, and in some cells - cilia and flagella and flavored flagellas form the cellular cellular system or cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton permeates the entire hyaloplasm, determines the shape of the cell and its change during the division or movement of some cells, ensures the movement of organoids in the cell.
Information system cells
The cell information system includes: kernel, ribosomes and various organic molecules (and-RNA, proteins-enzymes, ATP, etc.) The cell information system provides storage, reproduction and implementation of genetic information concluded in DNA.
Genetic information is information about the properties of the body that is inherited. Since all the properties of organisms depend on a variety of proteins, genetic information contains information about the structure of proteins. Genetic information is recorded in DNA by various sequences of its nucleotides.
The place of storage of genetic information is the kernel. There is also its reproduction by doubling DNA.
The implementation of genetic information is carried out in the cytoplasm in the process of protein biosynthesis using ribosomes. The transfer of information from the kernel to the cytoplasm is carried out by molecules and-RNA.
The information system functions only in periods between cell divisions. During the division of the core disintegrates, the DNA is superpowed, the reading of genetic information becomes the impossible and protein biosynthesis stops.
The structure and functions of the core
The kernel is the most important component of the eukaryotic cell. The core is not an organoid cell, since during the division of the cell disintegrates.
The core functions:
- storage of genetic information and its reproduction
- cell life management by implementing genetic information concluded in DNA.
In the structure of the core distinguish 4 of the main components:
-nuclear shell (Caryolem)
-nuclear juice (karyoplasm, karyolimf, nucleus)
Nadryshko
Chromatin.
The core is present in the cell only in the period between its divisions (in the interfax). During the division of the cage cage, the core breaks down, the nucleolus disappears, and the chromatin is spiralized and converted to the chromosome.
The nuclear shell consists of 2 closely located membranes - external and internal. There is space between them. The outer membrane passes into the membrane of the endoplasmic network, ribosomes can be attached to it. After a certain distance, both membranes merge with each other, forming holes - nuclear pores. The number of pores may vary depending on the activity of the kernel.
Nuclear shell functions:
- Protective. Protects genetic material from various negative effects.
- Provides localization (placement) of genetic material in a certain place of the cell.
- Through the pores of the nucleus, the metabolism between the core and the cytoplasm occurs. The kernel comes proteins-histones and ribosomal proteins that synthesize in the cytoplasm. From the kernel in the cytoplasm, RNA, T-RNA, ribosomes subunit are moved.
- The nuclear shell provides a certain reaction of the medium inside the nucleus, which is necessary for its normal functioning.
- Structural. Nuclear shell gives the kernel a certain form
In the karioplasm of the kernel is located chromatin. Chromatin is a nucleoproteide, since it consists of DNA (75%) and proteins (25%). The DNA sections wrap groups of 8 protein molecules, as a result of DNA condensed (shortening) and becomes more compact. The degree of condensation of chromatin in different parts of the nucleus is different. In this regard, heterochromatin and euchromatin distinguish.
Euchromatin looks like a network of thin threads. Euchromatin is genetically active, the genetic DNA information is copied to the RNA molecules (transcription process), is transferred to the cytoplasm, where various proteins are synthesized on it.
Heterochromatin is in a more condensed state, therefore genetically inactive (its composition includes non-informative DNA), genetic information is not implemented.
Before dividing the cell chromatin spiralized and condensed (compacted), dense X-shaped tales are formed - mitotic chromosomes. Linear DNA dimensions decrease 10,000 times. By this time, the nuclear sheath is destroyed and the mitotic chromosomes are freely lying in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Mitotic chromosomes At the beginning of the division consist of two chromatids. Each chromatide is a superspiralized DNA molecule. DNA molecules of two chromatids are absolutely identical molecules, carry the same genetic information, as they were formed as a result of doubling the DNA Motherboard. Chromatides are connected in the area of \u200b\u200bthe tanks - centromers. The centromer divides each chromatide for 2 shoulders. Some chromosomes forms an additional hauling - a nucleolistricant. It is based on a nucleolus.
During the division of the chromosome cells are also divided. Each chromosome is divided into 2 chromatids, which from now on are independent chromosomes of a rod shape. In the beginning of the division of chromosome cells are x-shaped calves (formed by two superspiralized DNA molecules), at the end of the division - row-shaped calves (formed by one superpiralized molecule DNA).
During the interphase, the DNA molecule is doubted, therefore at the beginning of the division, after the chromatin condensation, the X-shaped chromosome of 2 chromatids is reappeared.
Nadryshko- Rounded, dense caller inside the kernel, the membrane is not limited. It is a cluster of organic molecules and forming subunits ribosomes.
Yazryshko is formed in the zone of the nucleotone organizer. The nuclear organicer is a certain area of \u200b\u200bany chromosome, in which the RNA genes are located. On their basis, p-RNA is synthesized. P-RNA is connected to ribosomal proteins that come to the kernel from the cytoplasm through nuclear pores. Ribonucleotoproteins are formed, the ribosomes subunits are formed. Thus, the nucleolo is the place of formation of the subunit ribosomes.
During the division of the chromatin cell condenses, the synthesis of r-RNA molecules and the nucleolus disintegrates.
Karioplasma or nuclear juice - Matrix kernel, in which nucleolo and chromatin are located. It is a gel-like substance, its composition includes enzymes, ribosomal proteins, proteins-histones, nucleotides, nucleoline and chromatin products.
Carioplasm functions:
1. Binds into a single whole part of the kernel.
2. Through the karyoplasm, there are transport of various substances.
Chromosomal sets
Chromosomal set - A combination of chromosomes of the cell. Chromosomal sets of different types of organisms may differ in the number of chromosomes, their size and shape. The combination of quantitative (the number of chromosomes and dimensions) and high-quality (chromosome shape) signs of chromosomal set is called karyotype. The karyotype is permanent for each type and its features are inherited.
The study of chromosomal sets made it possible to establish the following facts:
- In the organisms of one species, all cells have the same chromosomal sets.
- In somatic cells, all the chromosomes are paired, so chromosomal sets are called diploid (2N). Chromosome of one pair are called homologous. They are the same in shape, sizes, set of genes. One of the homologous chromosomes is the maternal, and the other is paternal.
- In the genital cells contain only some single chromosome from the pair. Chromosomal sets of genital cells are called haploid (N).
- In a chromosomal set, autosomes and genital chromosomes are distinguished. Autosomes are the same in male and female individuals. Sex chromosomes contain genes that determine the signs of the floor and differ in males and females. Sex chromosomes are two types: X-chromosome and y-chromosome. In a person in female individuals in a chromosomal set, two x-chromosomes, and in individuals male - Hu.
- The number of chromosomes in a chromosomal set may be the same in different species (but the karyotypes will necessarily vary!) For example, 48 chromosomes have chimpanzees, cockroach, pepper. Therefore, it can be concluded that the number of chromosomes does not talk about the species affiliation and does not indicate the evolutionary relationship of species.
- The number of chromosomes does not depend on the level of the organization. For example, in a chromosomal set of Sazan 104 chromosome, and a person has 46 chromosomes.
Differences in plant and animal cells
The structure and functioning of animal and plant cells, there are both general features and differences. The differences are as follows:
- The vegetable cell over the cell membrane is located a thick and durable cell shell of polysaccharides (cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose). Cellulose molecules in the cell wall are located in parallel to each other and interconnected with a large number of hydrogen bonds. Cellulose gives the cell wall strength. The space between cellulose molecules is filled with other carbohydrates having a loose structure. Due to them, the cell shell during cell growth can stretch. The cell shell has pores. Through them, the cytoplasma is tested from the cell in the cell - plasmodesma. Through Plasmodesma, the metabolism occurs between adjacent cells. In animal cells, the cell shell and plasmodesma are absent. The cell membrane is covered with a very thin layer of carbohydrates included in the composition of glycicalis.
- In plant cells, there are special two-paved organides - plasts. There are 3 types of plastic: chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leukoplasts.
- There are no centrioles in the cells of higher plants, and the cellular center is represented only by microtubules. In the cells of lower plants, as in animal cells, centrioles are available.
- Vacuoles in plant cells occupy up to 90% of their volume. In young cells, vacuoles are small and numerous. Then they merge and one big vacuole is formed. The vacuol of the plant cell is filled with cellular juice. Cellular juice is an aqueous solution of sugars, amino acids, vitamins, pigments, inorganic salts. The vacuol performs several functions: gives elasticity by the cell, spares the organic substances, the sharing of metabolism is postponed. In animal cells, vacuoles occupy a small volume (up to 5%). This is basically contractile, digestive, phagocytic vacuoles.
- In vegetable cells, carbohydrates are in the form of starch, and in animal cells - as glycogen.
- By the method of nutrition, plants are photoautotrophs, and animals - heterotrophs.
Structure prokaryot
Procarniot - organisms whose cells do not have a limited membrane of the kernel. The adventure of prokaryitis consists of one kingdom - the kingdom of the shotgun, to which the bacteria and blue-green algae include the structure of prokaryotes on the example of bacteria.
- Bacteria have the smallest cells - from 0.5 to 10 microns. For comparison: the average size of the animal cell is 40 microns.
- The bacterial cell is covered outside the plasma membrane of a typical structure. Over the membrane, all bacteria is a durable cell wall that performs protective functions.
- The cell wall of many bacteria is surrounded by a mucous membrane of polysaccharides. The mucus retains the water well, so the mucous capsule protects the bacterial cell from drying out. The thickness of the mucous capsule depends on the conditions in which bacterium is located. For example, in soil bacteria, the mucous capsule is developed very well, and there are no water bacteria.
- Some bacteria have movement organoids - one or more flagellas that are fixed with the help of a basal taurus located under the membrane.
- Matrix bacterial cell - hyaloplasm.
- The bacteria does not have a limited membrane of the kernel. It replaces the annular DNA molecule (bacterial "chromosome") located in the center of the bacterial cell. The location of DNA is called nucleoid. DNA prokaryotes is not connected to proteins. There is no nucleoline. There are no real chromosomes.
- In the bacterial cell there is no endoplasmic network, a Golgi complex, mitochondria, plastists, etc. Membrane organoids. Their functions are performed by mesosomes - the inner patch of the cell membrane. Special mesosomas are formed in photosynthesising bacteria, in the membranes of which the molecules of bacterial chlorophyll are located. Such mesosomes are carried out photosynthesis.
- Ribosomes bacteria smaller and size coincide with mitochondrial ribosomes and eukaryotes. Ribosome functions, like in eukaryota - protein synthesis. Due to the high reproduction rate and growth, bacteria need large amounts of protein, therefore ribosomes can sometimes be up to 40% of the cell mass.
- Organic substances are stamped in the form of starch or glycogen, sometimes in the form of fat.
Cellian theory.
Cell theory is one of the most important biological philos, according to which all organisms have a cellular structure.
The cell theory arose as a result of the analysis of a huge number of actual material, which was obtained for 200 years. The study of the cell was made possible after opening a microscope.
1665 - Robert Gook with the help of a primitive light microscope saw the tiny "cells" cork on the plug cut, which he called cells.
1671 - Malpigi, Grew, Fontana confirmed the study of the thief on other biological objects. Scientists indicate the presence of cell walls.
1677 - Levenguk improved the microscope. Coloring manually lenses gave an increase of 275 times. With the help of his microscope, Levenguk opened single-cell animals.
In the 19th century, microscopes were created with an increase of 1200 times, with a good, clear image without distortion. Protoplasm and kernel were discovered. Knowledge accumulated, microscopic technique was improved. Relying on the available data and own research German nerd Matias Shleden and Zolog Theodore Schwan in 1839 almost simultaneously, independently of each other, came to the conclusion that the cell is an elementary unit of the structure of all plant and animal organisms. M. Shladyden and T.shvann formulated the main provisions of the cell theory, which was subsequently developed by many scientists. Shleyden and Schwann errors were as follows:
Cells of all organisms are similar in structure and chemical composition.4.New cells occur only by dividing previously existing cells.
5.The activity of the body is favored from the activity and interaction of the components of its independent cells.
6.The cellular structure of all organisms speaks of the unity of their origin.
The main components of the eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cells (Fig. 1 and 2) are organized significantly more complicated. They are very diverse in their sizes (from several micrometers to several centimeters), and in form, and by structural features (Fig. 3).
Each eukaryotic cell has a separate nucleus, in which the genetic material is delivered from the matrix (this is the main difference from prokaryotic cells). The genetic material is concentrated mainly in the form of chromosomes having a complex structure and consisting of DNA threads and protein molecules. Cell division occurs through mitosis (and for sex cells - MEIOS). Among the eukaryotes there are both unicellular and multicellular organisms.
There are several theories of the origin of eukaryotic cells, one of them is endosimbiotic. The heterotrophic anaerobic cell penetrated the aerobic cell type of bacteri-like, which served as the basis for the appearance of mitochondria. Spero-like cells began to penetrate into these cells, which gave rise to the formation of the centrioleum. The hereditary material burned out from the cytoplasm, the kernel arose, mitosis appeared. Some eukaryotic cells penetrated the cells such as blue-green algae, which marked the beginning of chloroplasts. So subsequently the kingdom of plants occurred.
The sizes of human body cells range from 2-7 microns (in platelets) to gigantic sizes (up to 140 μm at egg).
The shape of the cells is due to the function performed by them: the nerve cells are stellar due to a large number of processes (axon and dendrites), muscle cells are elongated, as they should decrease, red blood cells can change their shape when moving on fine capillaries.
The structure of eukaryotic cells of animals and vegetable organisms is largely similar. Each cell outside is limited by a cell shell, or a plasmama. It consists of a cytoplasmic membrane and a glycocalca layer (10-20 nm thick), which covers it outside. Components of glycicalis - complexes of polysaccharides with proteins (glycoproteins) and fats (glycolipids).
The cytoplasmic membrane is a bilayer complex of phospholipids with proteins and polysaccharides.
In the cage, the kernel and cytoplasm are isolated. The cell core consists of a membrane, nuclear juice, a nucleoline and chromatin. The nuclear shell consists of two membranes, separated by perinuclear space, and permeated with them.
The basis of the nuclear juice (matrix) is proteins: nichlya, or fibrillar (reference function), globular, heteronuclear RNA and mRNA (processing result).
Yazryshko is a structure where the formation and ripening of ribosomal RNA (P-RNA) occurs.
Chromatin in the form of a bump scatter in nucleoplasm and is an interphase form of the existence of chromosomes.
In the cytoplasm, the main substance (matrix, hyaloplasma), organelles and inclusions are distinguished.
Orgellas can be a common value and special (in cells performing specific functions: microvilles of the absorption epithelium of the intestines, myofibrils of muscle cells, etc.).
Organelles of the total value - the endoplasmic network (smooth and rough), the Golges complex, mitochondria, ribosomes and polisoms, lysosomes, peroxisomics, microfibrilles and microtubules, central centers.
In plant cells there are also chloroplasts in which photosynthesis flows.
Fig. one.The structure of eukaryot cells. Generalized scheme
Fig. 2.Cell structure according to electron microscopy
Fig. 3.Different eukaryotic cells: 1 - epithelial; 2 - blood (e-erythrocyte, L - leukocyte); 3 - cartilage; 4 - bones; 5 - Smooth muscular; 6 - connective tissue; 7 - nervous cells; 8 - cross-striped muscular fiber
However, the overall organization and the presence of fundamental components in all eukaryotic cells are the same (Fig. 4).
Fig.4.Eukaryotic cell (scheme)
Krasnodhembsky E. G. »General Biology: Handbook for high school students and entering universities»
N. S. Kurbatova, E. A. Kozlov "Abstract of lectures on general biology"
All living organisms can be divided into two main groups: procarniot and eukaryota. These terms occur from the Word of the Karion, meaning the kernel. Prokaryotes - milking organisms, do not have a decorated kernel. Eukario-you contain the desired kernel. Procarniotes include bacteria, cyanobacteria, mixomycetes, rickettsia, and other organ-bottoms; Eukariotes are mushrooms, plants and animals.
Cells of all eukaryotes have a similar structure.
They consist of cytoplasm and nucleiwhich together are the living contents of the cell - protoplast. Cytoplasm prevents a semi-liquid main substance or hyaloplasm Together with the intracellular structures submerged in it - organelles performing various functions.
From the outer side of the cytoplasm is surrounded by plasmatic membrane. Vegetable and mushroom cells also have a rigid cell shell. In the cytoplasm of plants and mushroom cells there are vacuoles - bubbles filled with water and dissolved in it by various substances.
In addition, there may be inclusions in the cell - spare nutrients or finite exchange products.
| Plasma membrane (PlasmaMalem) | Double layer of lipids and proteins immersed in it | Selectively regulates the metabolism between the cell and the external environment. Provides contact between adjacent cells |
| Core | He has a two-paved shell, contains DNA | Storage and transmission by subsidiaries of genetic material. Regulates cellular activity |
| Mitochondria. Present in plant and animal cells |
Surrounded by a two-paved shell; The inner membrane forms folds - Crysta. Contains ring DNA, ribosomes, many enzymes |
Implementation of the oxygen stage of cellular respiration (Synthesis of ATP) |
| Plasts. Contained in the plant cell | Two-grated structure. Derivatives of the inner membrane - thylacoids (contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts). | Photosynthesis, nutrient stock |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) | System of flattened membrane bags - tanks, cavities, tubes | Ribosomes are located on Sherohwat. In its tanks are insulated and synthesized proteins. Transportation of synthesized proteins. In the membranes of a smooth er the synthesis of lipids and steroids is carried out. Synthesis membranes |
| Golgi complex (kg) | The system of flat single-grams tanks, ampully extended at the ends of tanks and bubbles, swinging or connecting to tspers | Accumulation, transformation of proteins and lipids, synthesis of polysaccharides. Education of secretory bubbles, revealing the substances outside the cell formation of lysosomes |
| Lysosomes | Singlembrane bubbles containing hydrolytic enzymes | Intracellular digestion, splitting of damaged organelles, dead cells, organs |
| Ribosomes | Two subunits (big and small) consisting of RDNA and proteins | Assembling protein molecules |
| Centrioles | Microtubule system (9 × 3) built from protein subunits | Centers of the organization of microtubules (participate in the formation of a cytoskeleton, spine division of cells, cilia and flagella) |
Types of cell organization
Among the entire variety, the currently existing organisms are allocated on Earth two groups: viruses and phages that have no cellular structure; All other organisms are represented by a variety of cellular forms of life.
There are two types of cell organization: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
The cells of the prokaryotic type are made relatively simple. They do not have a morphologically separate nucleus, the only chromosome is formed by ring-shaped DNA and is in the cytoplasm; Membrane organelles are absent (their function is performed by various pensions of the plasma membrane); There are numerous small ribosomes in the cytoplasm; Microtubules are absent, therefore the cytoplasm is fixed, and cilia and flagellas have a special structure.
Procarniotes include bacteria.
Most modern living organisms belong to one of the three kingdoms - plants, mushrooms or animals, combined into the talent of eukaryot.
Depending on the quantity, of which organisms are, the latter are divided into unicellular and multicellular. Unicellular organisms consist of one single cell performing all functions. Many of these cells are much more difficult than the cell of a multicellular organism.
Unicellularity are all prokaryotes, as well as the simplest, some green algae and mushrooms.
The basis of the structural organization of cells is biological membranes. Membranes consist of proteins and lipids. The membranes also consists of carbohydrates in the form of glycolipids and glycoproteins located on the outer surface of the membrane.
A set of proteins and carbohydrates on the surface of the membrane of each cell is specific and determines its "passport" data. The membranes have the property of selective permeability, also the property of spontaneous restoration of the integrity of the structure.
They make up the base of the cell shell, form a number of cellular structures.
The structure of the eukaryotic cell
Plasma membrane structure structure:
1 - phospholipids;
2 - cholesterol;
3 - integral protein;
4 - oligosaccharide side chain.
Electron diffraction pattern of the cellular center (two centrioles at the end of the G1 period of the cell cycle):
1 - centrioles in cross section;
2 - Centrioles in the longitudinal section.
Golgji complex:
1 - tanks;
2 - Vesiculi (bubbles);
3 - large vacuole.
The typical eukaryotic cell consists of three components: shell, cytoplasm and kernel.
Cell sheath
Outside the cell is surrounded by a shell, the base of which is the plasma membrane, or plasmalamine (see
fig. 2) having a typical structure and a thickness of 7.5 nm.
The cell shell performs important and very diverse functions: determines and maintains the shape of the cell; protects the cell from the mechanical effects of penetration of damaging biological agents; performs a reception of many molecular signals (for example, hormones); limits the internal content of the cell; regulates the metabolism between the cell and the environment, ensuring the constancy of the intracellular composition; Participates in the formation of intercellular contacts and various kinds of specific pricing of cytoplasm (microvascular, cilia, flagella).
The carbon component in the membrane of animal cells is called glycocalix.
The exchange of substances between the cell and the surrounding medium occurs constantly.
Transportation mechanisms of substances in the cell and depends on the size of the transported particles. Small molecules and ions are transported by a cell directly through the membrane in the form of active and passive transport.
Depending on the type and direction, endocytosis and exocytosis are distinguished.
The absorption and separation of solid and large particles obtained, respectively, the names of phagocytosis and inverse phagocytosis, liquid or dissolved particles - pinocytosis and inverse pinocytosis.
Cytoplasm.
Organoides and inclusions
The cytoplasm is the internal content of the cell and consists of a hyaloplasm and a variety of intracellular structures in it.
Galoplasmas. (Matrix) is an aqueous solution of inorganic and organic substances capable of changing its viscosity and in constant motion. The ability to move or, the flow of cytoplasm, is called cyclic.
Matrix is \u200b\u200ban active medium in which many physical and chemical processes occur and which combines all cell elements into a single system.
Cytoplasmic cell structures are represented by inclusions and organoids.
The inclusions are relatively non-permanent, occurring in cells of some types to certain times of life, for example, as a supply of nutrients (starch grains, proteins, glycogen drops) or products to be discharged from the cell.
Organoishes are permanent and mandatory components of most cells having a specific structure and performing a vital function.
Eukaryotic cell membrane organoids include an endoplasmic network, a Golgi, mitochondria, lysosomes, plastists.
Endoplasmic reticulum.
The entire inner zone of the cytoplasm is filled with numerous small channels and cavities, the walls of which are membranes similar in their structure with the plasma membrane. These channels are branched, connected to each other and form a network that called the endoplasmic network.
The endoplasmic network is heterogeneous in its structure.
There are two types of it - granular and smooth. On the membranes of channels and cavities of the granular network there are many small rounded Taurus - Ribosomes, which give membranes a grungy look. The membranes of a smooth endoplasmic network are not ribosomes on its surface.
The endoplasmic network performs a lot of varied functions. The main function of the granular endoplasmic network is to participate in the protein synthesis, which is carried out in ribosomes.
On the membranes, a smooth endoplasmic network occurs synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates. All these synthesis products are accumulated by channels and cavities, and then transported to various cells of the cell, where they are consumed or accumulated in the cytoplasm as cellular inclusions.
The endoplasmic network binds among themselves the main cells of the cell.
Machine Golgi.. In many animal cells, for example, in nervous, it has the form of a complex network located around the kernel.
In the cells of plants and the simplest, the Golgi apparatus is represented by separate self-shaped calves. The structure of this organo is similar to the cells of plant and animal organisms, despite the variety of its shapes.
The Golgi apparatus includes: cavities limited to membranes and groups of 5-10); Large and fine bubbles located at the ends of the cavities.
All these elements make up a single complex.
The Golgi apparatus performs many important functions. On the channels of the endoplasmic network, the products of synthetic activity of cells - proteins, carbohydrates and fats are transported to it. All these substances first accumulate, and then in the form of large and fine bubbles enter the cytoplasm or are either used in the cell itself in the process of its livelihoods, or are derived from it and are used in the body.
For example, in the cells of the pancreas of mammals, digestive enzymes are synthesized, which accumulate in the cavities of the organo. Then the bubbles filled with enzymes are formed. They are derived from cells in the pancreatic duct, from where they flow into the bowel cavity. Another important function of this organo is that the synthesis of fats and carbohydrates (polysaccharides), which are used in the cell and which are included in the membrane, occur on its membranes.
Thanks to the operation of the Golgi apparatus, an update and the growth of the plasma membrane occur.
Mitochondria. In the cytoplasm of most animal cells and plants contain small calves (0.2-7 microns) - mitochondria (Greek.
"Mitos" - thread, "Chondrion" - grain, granule).
Mitochondria is clearly visible in a light microscope, with which you can consider their form, the location, count the amount. The inner structure of mitochondria is studied using an electron microscope. The mitochondria sheath consists of two membranes - external and internal. The outer membrane is smooth, it does not forms any folds and growing. The inner membrane, on the contrary, forms numerous folds, which are directed to the mitochondria cavity.
The folds of the inner membrane are called Crystami (Lat. "Crysta" - the comb, increased) The number of Crysta is different in the mitochondria of different cells. They can be from several tens to a few hundred, and especially a lot of crists in mitochondria of actively functioning cells, such as muscle.
Mitochondria is called "power stations" of cells "as their main function is the synthesis of adenosine trifosphoric acid (ATP). This acid is synthesized in the mitochondria of cells of all organisms and is a universal source of energy required for the implementation of the processes of vital activity of the cell and a whole body.
New mitochondria is formed by the division of the mitochondria already existing in the cage.
Lysosomes.
Present small rounded tales. From the cytoplasm, each lysosome is disposed of membrane. Inside the lysosomes are enzymes, splitting proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids.
To the food particle, which entered the cytoplasm, is suitable for lysosomes, merge with it, and one digestive vacuole is formed, inside of which the food particle is surrounded by enzymes lysosomes.
Substances formed as a result of digestion of the food particle are enrolled in the cytoplasm and are used by the cell.
Possessing the ability to actively digest the food substances, the lysosomes are involved in the removal of the cells of cells, entire cells and organs in the process of life. The formation of new lysosomes occurs in the cage constantly. Enzymes contained in lysosomes, as well as all sorts of other proteins are synthesized on cytoplasm ribosomes.
Then these enzymes come through the channels of the endoplasmic network to the Golgi apparatus, which are formed by lysosomes. In this form, the lysosomes are enrolled in the cytoplasm.
Plasts. In the cytoplasm of cells of all plants there are plastides.
There are no plasts in animal cells. There are three main types of plastic: green - chloroplasts; Red, orange and yellow - chromoplasts; Colorless - leukoplasts.
Mandatory for most cells are also organoisians who do not have a membrane structure. These include ribosomes, microfilaments, microtubule, cellular center.
Ribosomes. Ribosomes are found in the cells of all organisms. This microscopic rounded shape calves with a diameter of 15-20 nm.
Each ribosome consists of two unequal particles, small and large.
In one cell contains many thousands of ribosomes, they are located either on the membranes of the granular endoplasmic network, or are freely lying in the cytoplasm.
The ribosoma includes proteins and RNA. Ribosoma function is a protein synthesis. Protein synthesis is a complex process that is carried out not with a single ribosome, but a whole group comprising up to several tens of combined ribosomes. Such a group of ribosoma is called a polis. Synthesized proteins first accumulate in the channels and cavities of the endoplasmic network, and then transported to organoids and sections of the cells where they are consumed.
The endoplasmic network and ribosomes located on its membranes are a single apparatus of biosynthesis and transportation of proteins.
Microtubule and Microfilaments -thread structures consisting of various contractile proteins and modifying motor functions of the cell. Microtubule have the appearance of hollow cylinders, the walls of which consist of proteins - tubulins. Microfilaments are very thin, long, filamental structures consisting of actin and myosin.
Microtubule and microfilaments permeate the entire cytoplasm of the cell, forming its cytoskeleton, determine cyclicosis, intracellular displacement of the organelle, the discrepancy of the chromosome during the division of nuclear material, etc.
Cell Center (Centrosoma).
In animal cells near the core there is an organoid, which is called the cellular center. The main part of the cell center is two small tales - centrioles located in a small area of \u200b\u200bcompacted cytoplasm. Each Centriol has a form of a cylinder up to 1 microme. Centrioli play an important role in cell division; They are involved in the formation of the separation of division.
In the process of evolution, different cells adapt to habitat in different conditions and perform specific functions.
This required the presence of special organides in them, which are called specialized in contrast to the general purpose organides discussed above.
These include the contracting vacuoles of the simplest, myofibrils of muscle fiber, neurofibrils and synaptic bubbles of nerve cells, microwaves of epithelial cells, cilia and flagella of some simplest.
Core - the most important component of eukaryotic cells. Most cells have one core, but multi-core cells are found (in a number of simplest vertebrates in skeletal muscles). Some highly specialized cells lose the nuclei (mammalian erythrocytes, for example).
The kernel, as a rule, has a spherical or oval shape, less common can be segmented or spindle-shaped.
The kernel includes a nuclear sheath and a karyoplasm containing chromatin (chromosome) and nuclei.
Nuclear shellit is formed by two membranes (outer and internal) and contains numerous pores through which various substances exchange occurs between the core and cytoplasm.
Karioplasma (nucleoplasm) It is a jelly solution, which contains a variety of proteins, nucleotides, ions, as well as chromosomes and nucleolus.
Nadryshko - a small rounded Taurus, intensely staining and detectable cells detecting in the nuclei.
The function of the nucleoline is the synthesis of RRNA and the connection of them with proteins, i.e. Assembling subparticles Ribosomes.
Chromatin - specifically staining with some dyes of chucks, granules and nichly the structures formed by DNA molecules in the complex with proteins. Different areas of DNA molecules in chromatin has different degrees of spiralization, and therefore vary in the intensity of the color and the nature of genetic activity.
Chromatin is the form of the existence of a genetic material in the underwent cells and provides the ability to doubt and implement the information concluded in it.
In the process of cell division, the DNA is spiralized and chromatin structures form chromosome.
Chromosomes - dense, intensively staining structures that are units of morphological organization of genetic material and ensure its exact distribution in cell division.
The number of chromosomes in the cells of each biological species is constantly. Usually in the cells of the cell cells (somatic) chromosomes are represented by pairs, in the genital cells they are not guy. A single set of chromosomes in germ cells is called haploid (N), a set of chromosomes in somatic cells diploid (2N).
Chromosome of different organisms differ in size and shape.
The diploid set of chromosomes of cells of a particular type of living organisms, characterized by the number, magnitude and form of chromosomes, is called a karyotype. In a chromosomal set of somatic cells, pair chromosomes are called homologous, chromosomes from different steam - non-homologous. Homologous chromosomes are the same in size, form, composition (one inherited from the maternal, the other - from the father's body).
The structure of the eukaryotic cell
The chromosome in the composition of the karyotype is also divided into autosomes, or non-peculiar chromosomes, the same in individuals of male and female, and heterochromosomes, or sex chromosomes involved in the definition of sex and differ in males and females. Man's karyotype is represented by 46 chromosomes (23 pairs): 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes (in female two identical X-chromosomes, in the male - x and y-chromosome).
The kernel carries out storage and implementation of genetic information, control of the protein biosynthesis process, and through proteins - all other vital processes.
The core participates in replication and distribution of hereditary information between subsidiaries, and consequently, in the regulation of cellular division and the processes of the body's development.
same:
The structure of the bacterial cell
The structure of the genome bacteria
The structure of enzymes
The structure of Virion Retrovirus
The structure of the plant cell
The nuclear sheath is dissolved, chromosomes are freely located in the cytoplasm
4. Chromosomes are sent to the poles of the cell
5.Coes the cell shell
97. What changes occur in the interphase of the cell cycle during the division period:
1. It is a cytoplasma 2. The core 3) DNA is associated.
4. Chromosomes diverge to poles 5. Chromosomes spirals
98.Fase mitosis, during which chromosomes are in an ordered state in the field of equator
anphase 2. PROFACE 3. BELFAZ four). Metafaza 5. Interfhaza
99. Regulators of apoptosis are:
1. Embresses 2.Curry 3. Reader 4). Gormons 5.
100. Apoptosis is
3.Poliploidide 4.1 and 2 Answers 5. Results of duidal cells
101. Operating the frog, students were constantly wetting it organic solve organs, the concentration of which is 9%. The frog died. Why?
1. The hypotonic cell solution will burst and burst
2. The isotonic cell solution is losing water and die
Hypertensive solution - plasmolysis of cells
the solution of hypotoneic-plasmolysis of cells
5. This is a saline.
The scheme of the structure of the eukaryotic cell
The cause of the death of the frog is not
associated with its use
102. The removal of substances from the cell through the Golgi complex occurs as a result of the merge of the membrane of secretory granules with a plasmolemma resulting in the contents of the granules be outside the cell. What process we have a case here
1. Endocytosis 2). exocytosis3. Phagocytosis
pinocytosis 5. Endocytosis by pinocytosis
103. Mitose events in chronological order are located under the number
1. Chromatids in the form of nursing chromosomes are distributed over the cells of the cells, it is desisted, nuclear shells are formed, cytokhenez occurs
2. Chromosomes are located in the equator plane.
The filaments of the separation of division are attached to the centromers of individual chromosomes
3. Chromosome spirals, the nuclear sheath disappears, forms spine divisions.
4). 3-2-1 5. 3-1-2
104. Prokaryotes differ from eukaryota
1. The absence of kernel and organoids
2. The absence of a shell, core, organoids
Lack of decorated kernel, mitochondria, plastid, EPS
lack of DNA, chromosomes, kernels
5. Only lack of decorated kernel
105. According to the Denver Classification of the Human Chromosome, classified on features
location of localization centromers, chromosomes
2. Biochemical composition
3. The degrees of the propellation and the presence of allelic genes
Size, position Centrometers, presence of secondary drawings and satellites
5. Differential painting by metaphase chromosomes
106. If human karyotype chromosomes are located in pairs in order of descending value, called
1. GENOM 2. GENOFOND 3). idiogram4.
karyotype 5. diploid set
107. The sex chromosomes are called
1. The same in the complex chromosome of individuals of one species, but of different sexes
Differing in complex chromosome of individuals of one species, but of different sexes
4. Decisive differences between species
108. The main properties of the DNA molecule are
1. Denaturation and Reparation
resistance to temperature
3. Reducing, denaturation, spiralization
Spiralization, Despiratization, Reduction
109. If you take rabbit ribosomes, A and RNA, sheep, the protein will synthesize
1. Rabbit 2.) Sheep 3. Depends on the conditions of the medium 4.
both types of protein
5. With this condition, protein synthesis is not possible
110. Autosomes, these are chromosomes
The same in the complex chromosome of individuals of one species, but of different sexes
2. Different in complex chromosome of individuals of one species, but of different sexes
3. Determining distinguishing features of this species
differences between species
5. The same size, shape, gene composition
111. During mitosis, the protein is not synthesized because
1. There is no amino acids in the cage
2. Cage lacking energy
3. Does not occur transcription due to lack of nucleotides
Chromosome spiralized - no transcription
112. Passive admission of substances in a cage
potassium-sodium pump 2. Phagocytosis 3. Pinocytosis four). diffusion 5. 2 and 3
113. The cell death in the hypertensive solution is explained by the fact that
Water leaves the cell
2. Water penetrates the cage in large quantities
salts penetrate the cage
4. Salts leave the cell
5. Water does not enter the cage, the cells remain unchanged
114. By the nature of assimilation, all organisms are divided into
1. Autotrophic and heterotrophic
2. Autotrophic and mixotrophic
golozoy and Osmotic
4.) Mixotrophic, heterotrophic, autotrophic
115. The smallest structure that is inherent in the whole set of properties of life, which can maintain these properties in itself and transfer them to a number of generations, is
gene 2. core cell 3). cell4. Organism 5. Chromosome
116. For heterotrophic organisms, it is characteristic
1. Synthesize organic substances of their body from simpler, inorganic
2. Need ready-made organic substances
3. Depending on the surrounding conditions, the synthesis
put organic substances or use ready
4. Build their body from ready-made organic compounds.
The main stages of the energy metabolism of heterotrophic organisms and the place of implementation of each stage
1. Preparatory and cytoplasm: Glikoliz-Mitochondria:
2. Glycoliz-hyaloplasm, breathing-mitochondria
Preparatory and digestive organs, glycoliz-hyalop-
Laspie, breathing-mitochondria
4. fermentation-hyaloplasm, breathing-plaststs
5. Preparatory and chloroplasts, glazing-oglll slope, mitochondria breathing
In the flow of information cells participate
2. Macromolecules carrying information in the cytoplasm
3. cytoplasmic transcription apparatus
4. All cellulla cells
5.)1, 2, 3
119. The degeneracy of the DNA code indicates that
1. Coding one polypeptide, codons follow without punctuation marks
2. Codons are followed in the same order as the residues of amino acids encoded by them
The position of a particular amino acid in the polypeptide molecule can be indicated in DNA using one of several codons of synonyms.
dNA code Universalen
5. The code triplet is always broadcast.
120. DNA code is non-refining, as
Coding one polypeptide, codons follow without punctuation signs, but the code triplet is always broadcast
2. Code should in the same manner as the residues of amino acids encoded by them
3. The position of a particular amino acid in the polypeptide molecule can be indicated in DNA using one of several codons of synonyms.
dNA code Universalen
5. Some amino acids are encoded by several triplets.
121. In the peptidal section of the ribosome during the broadcast occurs
1. Attachments T-RNA with activated amino acids
Polypeptide extension
3. Synthesis of ATF.
4. Recoding information
5. Attachment of the molecule and RNA
122. In the amino section of the ribosome during the broadcast occurs
2.4 The structure of the eukaryotic cell
Cell wall eukaryotic cell, in contrast to the cell wall, the prokaryt consists mainly of polysaccharides. Mushrooms are mainly a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide chitin.Yeast 60-70% of polysaccharides are represented glucan and mannanwhich are associated with proteins and lipids. The functions of the cell wall eukarot are the same as the prokaryotes.
Cytoplasmic membrane (CPM) Also has a three-layer structure. The surface of the membrane has a protrusion close to the mesosoms of prokaryotes. CPM regulates cell metabolic processes.
The eukaryotic CPM can capture large drops from the environment containing carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
This phenomenon is called pinocytosis. CPM eukaryotic cells can also capture solid particles from the medium (Phagocytosis phenomenon). In addition, the CPM is responsible for the release of exchange products on Wednesday.
2.2 - The scheme of the structure of the eukaryotic cell:
1 - cell wall; 2 - cytoplasmic membrane;
3 - cytoplasm; 4 - core; 5 - endoplasmic network;
6 - mitochondria; 7 - Golgi complex; 8 - ribosomes;
9 - lysosomes; 10 - Vacuoles
Core Separated from cytoplasm with two membranes in which there are pores.
Pores in young cells are open, they serve to migrate from the kernel to the cytoplasm of precursors ribosomes, information and transport RNA.
Lecture 3. Cell structure
In the nucleus in nucleoplasm there are chromosomes consisting of two filamentous chain molecules of DNA connected to proteins. The kernel also has a nucleolus, rich matrix RNA and associated with a specific chromosome - a nucleotone organizer.
The main function of the nucleus is to participate in the reproduction of the cell.
This is a carrier of hereditary information.
In the eukaryotic cage, the kernel is the most important, but not the only carrier of hereditary information. Part of such information is contained in the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Mitochondria - The membrane structure containing two membranes is an outdoor and inner, strongly folded.
The inner membrane concentrates redox enzymes. The main function of mitochondria is the supply of cellular cell (ATP formation). Mitochondria is a self-appropriate system, since it has its own chromosome - ring DNA and other components that are part of a regular prokaryotic cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ES) - a membrane structure consisting of tubules that permeate the entire inner cell surface.
It is smooth and rough. On the surface of the roughing ES, ribosomes are located, larger than the ribosome priced. The ES membranes are also located enzymes carrying out the synthesis of lipids, carbohydrates and the substances responsible for transport in the cell.
Golgi complex - Packages of flattened membrane bubbles - tanks in which the packaging and transport of proteins inside the cell is carried out. The synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes also occurs in the Golgi complex (Lizosoma).
IN lysosomes The hydrolytic enzymes are concentrated.
Here is the splitting of biopolymers (proteins, fats, carbohydrates).
Vacuole separated from cytoplasm membranes. The spare vacuoles contain spare nutrients of cells, and in slag - unnecessary exchange products and toxic substances.
Questions for self-test
What questions is studying the systemics as a science?
2. What tasks are set when classifying microorganisms?
3. What taxonomic categories are you known?
4. What is the "nomenclature of microorganisms"?
5. How are microorganisms share depending on the structure of their cell organization?
1. What types of cell organization do you know?
2. What microorganisms are called guidance?
Give examples of such microorganisms.
7. Name the main components of the prokaryotic cell.
8. What is the difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria?
Name the chemical composition and function of the nucleoid. Which cells have a nucleoid?
10. What function in the cell is performed by ribosomes? What is the difference between the ribosomes of prokaryotis from the ribosome eukaryot?
11. What are the composition and function of the cell wall of eukaryot?
12. What are the differences in the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
13. What is the chemical composition and function of the cytoplasmic membrane of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
What role do lysosomes in the eukaryotic cell?
15. Create examples of unicellular organisms known to you.
16. To define the concepts of "phagocytosis" and "Pinocytosis".
Literature
1. Schlegel G.
General microbiology. - M.: Mir, 1987. - 500 s.
2. Mudrenryov-Wiss K.A., Kudryashova A.A., Dedyukhina V.P. Microbiology, Sanitation and Hygiene - Vladivostok: Publishing House of DVGAU, 1997. - 312 p.
3. Asonov N.R. Microbiology.
- 3 ed., Pererab. and add. - M.: Kolos, 1997. - 352 p.
4. ELINOV N.P. Chemical microbiology - M.: Higher School, 1989.-448 p.
General structure of the structure of the eukaryotic cell
The typical eukaryot cell consists of three components - shell, cytoplasm and kernel. The basis of cells shell Improbemalem (cell membrane) icy-protein surface structure.
1. Plasmalemma .
2. Carbohydrate-protein surface structure.
Structural organization of eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic structure
Animal cells have a small protein layer (glycocalix) . In plants, the surface structure of the cell - cell wall Consists of cellulose (fiber).
The functions of the cell shell: supports the shape of the cell and gives mechanical strength, protects the cell, performs the recognition of molecular signals, regulates the metabolism between the cell and the medium, performs intercellular interaction.
Cytoplasm It consists of hyaloplasm (the main substance of the cytoplasm), organoids and inclusions.
Galoplasmas. It is a colloidal solution of organic and inorganic compounds, combines all cell structures into a single integer.
Mitochondria Two membranes have: outdoor smooth internal with folds - cristes. Inside between Crystams is matrixcontaining DNA molecules, minor ribosomes and breathing enzymes. In mitochondria, the synthesis of ATP occurs. Mitochondria is divided into the division.
3. Platids characteristic for vegetable cells. There are three kinds of plastic: chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Divided by division.
Chloroplasts - Green plastides in which photosynthesis is carried out. Chloroplast has a two-paved shell.
The body of chloroplast consists of a colorless-lipid stroma, a permeated system of flat bags (thylacoids) formed by the inner membrane. Tylacoids are figured. The stroma contains ribosomes, starch grains, DNA molecules.
II. Chromoplasts press the plants to different organs.
III. Leukoplasts purchase nutrients. Of the leukoplasts, the formation of chromoplasts and chloroplasts.
Endoplasmic reticulumit is a branched system of tubes, channels and cavities. Diffuser (smooth) and granular (rough) EPS. The non-grunular EPS contains the enzymes of fat and carbohydrate metabolism (synthesis of fats and carbohydrates occurs). The award EPS is located ribosomes carrying protein biosynthesis. EPS functions: transport, concentration and selection.
5. Machine Golgi. it consists of flat membrane bags and bubbles. In animal cells, the Golgi apparatus performs a secretory function, in the plant it is the center of polysaccharide synthesis.
Vacuole filled with plants with cellular juice. Features of vacuoles: Power supply of nutrients and water, maintaining a cell in the cell.
7. Lysosomes The spherical shape, formed by the membrane, inside which contains enzymes, hydrolyzing proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, fats.
Cell Centermanages cell division processes.
9. Microtubule and microfilaments in form a cell skeleton.
Ribosomes Eukarot larger (80s).
11. Inclusion - spare substances, detectors - only in plant cells.
Core It consists of a nuclear shell, karyoplasm, nuclei, chromatin.
Nuclear shellaccording to the structure, similar to the cell membrane contains pores. The nuclear shell protects the genetic apparatus from the effects of cytoplasm substances. Carries out control over the transport of substances.
2. Karioplasma it is a colloidal solution containing proteins, carbohydrates, salts, other organic and inorganic substances.
Nadryshko - spherical education, contains various proteins, nucleoproteins, lipoproteins, phosphoproproids. The function of the nucleus - the synthesis of the embryos of ribosomes.
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