Avoidance arbitration escalation mediation compromise. What is conflict escalation

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1st ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD OF SCHOOLCHILDREN IN SOCIAL STUDIES. SCHOOL STAGE 7th grade Dear participant! When completing assignments, you will have to do certain work, which is best organized as follows: read the assignment carefully; If you are answering a theoretical question or solving a situational problem, think about and formulate a specific answer (the answer should be brief and its content should be entered in the space provided; keep notes clearly and legibly). For each correct answer you can receive a number of points determined by the jury, not higher than the specified maximum score. The sum of points scored for all solved questions is the result of your work. The maximum number of points is 90. The tasks are considered completed if you submit them to the jury on time. We wish you success! 1

2 Methodology for assessing the completion of Olympiad tasks 1. Select one correct answer from those proposed. Enter your answer in the table Which of the following definitions characterizes the concept of “society” in a broad sense? 1) This is a holistic system of connections and relationships between people. 2) This is an association of people based on interests. 3) This is a historical stage in the development of humanity. 4) These are citizens of one state. A set of people united by common social characteristics, connections, behavior is called 1) social hierarchy 2) social group 3) social stratification 4) social structure 1.3. Opportunities, conditions that allow a person to achieve a certain result are 1) motives 2) resources 3) goals 4) needs 1.4. The system of public administration and self-government relates to the sphere of social life: 1) economic 2) social 3) spiritual 4) political 1 point for each correct answer. Maximum 4 points for the task. 2

3 2. Choose several correct answers. Enter your answers into the table. Select the social roles of a teenager from the list below. 1) voter 2) student 3) son 4) grandson 5) employer 2.2. Which of the following list are factors of production? 1) capital 2) income 3) land 4) wages 5) labor 2.3. Which of the following applies to a small group? 1) class 2) family 3) school class 4) proletariat 5) queue at the supermarket checkout 6) fans at the stadium during the match points for a completely correct answer. 1 point for an answer with one error (one of the correct answers is not indicated, or one incorrect answer is given along with all the correct answers indicated). Maximum 6 points for the task. 3. What do the concepts below have in common? Give the most accurate answer: game, cognition, communication, work. Activities Friendship, recognition, sleep, respect, safety. human needs. 3 points for each correct answer. Maximum 6 points for the task. 3

4 4. Give a brief rationale for the series (what unites the listed elements). Indicate which of the elements is superfluous on this basis: Evasion, arbitration, escalation, mediation, compromise. forms of resolving social conflicts, unnecessary escalation Goal, result, hypothesis, motive, subject. activity structure, superfluous hypothesis. 4 points for each correct answer (2 points for a correct justification, 2 points for indicating something extra). Maximum 8 points for the task. 5. “Yes” or “no”? If you agree with the statement, write “yes”; if you disagree, write “no”. Enter your answers in the table One of the functions of the family is the socialization of the child. The presence of physiological needs is a manifestation of the biological essence of a person. The concept of humanism is associated with moral categories. A person is a bearer of social qualities from the moment of birth 5.5. State power is the only manifestation of power in society yes yes yes no no 2 points for each correct position. Maximum 10 points for the task. 4

5 All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in social studies. d. 6. Look at the images below. What do they have in common? Fill out the diagram, indicating the category (generalizing concept) common to all images, as well as its constituent elements. Enter in the appropriate cells the letter designations of the illustrations that relate to the elements you named. A B C D 2 points for indicating a generalizing concept. 2 points for each completely correct completion of the cells of the second level of the diagram. Maximum 10 points for the task. 5

6 7. Establish a correspondence between historical examples and the forms of government to which they correspond: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. Enter your answers into the table. Form of government 1) monarchy 2) republic Historical example A) The decision of the people's assembly was considered final and could not be appealed; even a tragic mistake could not be corrected. For example, the Athenian national assembly, despite the protests of Socrates, condemned to death the victorious strategists in the battle of the Arginus Islands (406 BC). Then the citizens repented of their decision, but it was too late: the strategists were executed. The minority had to unconditionally submit to the majority. The restraining factor for the majority could only be an appeal to the “paternal laws” and the establishment of the “founding fathers” of the Athenian democratic state: Solon and (less often) Cleisthenes. B) In 1315, the Venetian authorities compiled the “Golden Book,” a list of active citizens with political rights. The head of state was the doge (duke). He was elected for life, following a deliberately complicated procedure: electors were selected from city districts (or from the Great Council), they formed a second college with the involvement of additional electors, the second a third, that fourth (all of different quantitative composition), and only the fifth or sixth directly approved the proposed candidate. This system was supposed to prevent political collusion and adventurers who could cloud the heads of ordinary citizens. The Doge had predominantly representative power, as well as supreme jurisdiction. C) As you know, Byzantium did not know clear legislation on succession to the throne. But Byzantine legal consciousness obviously leaned towards the “classical” version of the dynastic succession of power from father to son. And the example of the last Palaiologan dynasty, who ruled from 1261 to the last day of the Empire (1453), that is, almost 200 years, is not out of the ordinary. Many dynastic lines passed through the thousand-year history of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. This is all the more 6

7 it is interesting that the succession to the throne, even within the same dynasty, did not always occur through the male line. D) In ​​the 13th century, a commission of 24 barons formed by the English Parliament drew up the so-called Oxford Provisions, which decided that a council of fifteen should be organized under the king, which would have the right to give advice to the king regarding the management of the state and under whose control would be the chief justiciar and other officials faces. A B C D 3 points for each correct position. Maximum 12 points for the task. 8. Insert in place of the gaps the serial numbers of the corresponding words from the proposed list. Words are given in the list in the singular, adjectives in the masculine form. Please note: the list of words also contains some that should not appear in the text! Enter your answer in the table. In sociology, the family is considered both as a small social (A) and an important (B) institution. As a small group, it satisfies (B) needs; as an institution, it satisfies the socially significant needs of society. The family is an important element of the social structure of society, one of its (G), whose activities are regulated by both marriage and family (D), and moral and moral (E), customs, traditions, etc. The main function of the family is reproductive, i.e. e. biological (F) population. Family relationships are quite diverse in their forms and types. Depending on the structure of family ties, two main (S) families are distinguished: simple ((I)) and complex (extended). The first consists of parents and their dependent children, the second of parents, children and other relatives, representatives of two or more (K). 7

8 List of terms 1) subsystem 2) stability 3) nuclear 4) class 5) reproduction 6) norm 7) group 8) system 9) classification 10) class 11) control 12) social 13) functioning 14) subordination 15) personal 16) organization 17) purpose 18) generation 19) legislation 20) type A B C D E E G H I K 1 point for each correct insert. Maximum 10 points for the task. 9. Read the text carefully and answer the questions. In everyday conversation, the word "status" is used to denote the position of an individual, determined by his economic position, influence and prestige. However, sociologists understand status as the social position of a person within a group or society, associated with his certain rights and responsibilities. It is with the help of statuses that we identify each other in various social structures. Mother, friend, boss, professor - all these are statuses. Not all statuses are within our control. Some statuses are given to us by a group or society. Status inherited from birth is called ascribed. The generally accepted criteria for ascribed status are age and gender. For example, according to the law, you cannot obtain a driver's license, get married, participate in elections or receive a pension before reaching the required age... We obtain other statuses through individual choice and competition. The status acquired by an individual in society through his own efforts is called achieved. No society can ignore the difference of individuals, so the success or failure of an individual is reflected in giving him a certain status based on a specific achievement. Status presupposes the presence of rights and responsibilities defined by social culture that form a model of behavior, what sociologists call a role. These expected actions of a person determine the behavior that people view as appropriate or inappropriate 8

9 status holder. Simply put, the difference between status and role is that we occupy a status, and we play a role. A role is an expected behavior that we associate with a certain status. The performance of a role is the actual behavior of a person with some status. In real life, there is often a discrepancy between how people should act and how they actually act. In addition, people exercise the rights and responsibilities associated with their roles in different ways. One status can have a number of roles associated with it, forming a role set. (Yu. Volkov and others) 9.1. What two definitions of the concept “status” does the author give? Write down both definitions. What two types of statuses does the author name? Give one example of each type of status, each time indicating which type your example belongs to. How do social roles and human behavior relate? 9.4. The author writes that people exercise the rights and responsibilities associated with their roles in different ways. Give an example that illustrates this statement. Based on the text, write what a “role set” is. The author writes that the success or failure of an individual is reflected in giving him a certain status based on a specific achievement. Give two examples that illustrate these processes The concept of "status" is used to denote the position of an individual, determined by his economic position, influence and prestige. 2. Sociologists understand status as a person’s social position within a group or society, associated with his certain rights and responsibilities. The wording can be arbitrary. 2 points for each given meaning of the concept. Total 4 points inherited from birth, OR innate, OR attributed. 2. achieved. For each named species 2 points. Total 4 points. Examples: ascribed status of a child, achieved status of a teacher. Other examples may be given. 2 points for each example given. Total 4 points. Maximum 8 points Social role determines the behavior of an individual expected by society. 2 points. 9

10 An example of different understandings: one teacher may understand his role as a manifestation of increased rigor and exactingness towards students, another as a desire to interest students in the subject with jokes and interesting facts. Another example may be given. 3 points for a correct example. 2. A role set is a certain number of social roles associated with a certain status. Another formulation may be given. 3 points. Total 6 points A student’s victory in a subject Olympiad contributes to the acquisition of the status of “excellent student.” Bankruptcy contributes to acquiring the status of an unreliable borrower. Other examples may be given. 2 points for each example given. Total 4 points. Maximum score for the task is 24 points. The maximum score for the work is 90 points. 10

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1) Pre-conflict stage, at which the emergence of conflict occurs. This stage characterizes the situation on the eve of the conflict. The conflict is still latent, the objective contradictions are not recognized by the parties, but tension and alienation are growing in the relations between them, the causes of which are often associated with some random circumstances.

At the pre-conflict stage, symptoms of an impending conflict are:

- “avoidance” of conflict, manifested in avoidance of communication, which becomes a frustrating factor. Sometimes such withdrawal is carried out literally, expressed in a severance or extreme limitation of contacts with potential opponents. But since communication often cannot be avoided (for example, within a family or organization), it is transferred into a formal channel and acquires a ritual character.

The disappearance of trust, emotional openness, the so-called “hiding behavior” appears, associated with fears that the opponent will misunderstand words or actions and show an inadequate reaction. Often this behavior manifests itself in the phenomenon of “yes-ying.” In “normal”, conflict-free conditions, we often enter into polemics with others, defend our position, counting on understanding, and also allow similar actions on the part of others. In a pre-conflict situation, when alienation arises in a relationship, it seems easier to give formal consent by saying “Yes” than to enter into a discussion and continue unpleasant communication;

Tension in the relations between the parties and a feeling of anxiety give rise to mutual suspicions and rumors, which are prepared by negative expectations.

Gradually, the process of “conflict attribution” begins, in which all words and actions of opponents are endowed with certain meanings that confirm their insincerity, deceit, and evil plans towards us. This, in turn, leads to accusations and micro-conflicts that arise seemingly spontaneously and are of a random nature.

2) Stage of awareness of the conflict. At this stage, it becomes obvious to opponents that their goals and interests do not coincide. As noted above, awareness may be adequate or inadequate, but regardless of this, it sets the motivation for the conflict action . The parties are already mentally prepared for the start of the struggle; the idea arises that one can only speak with opponents in the language of force. This determines possible models of conflict interaction, scenarios for conflict development.

Awareness of the inevitability of confrontation leads, as R. Dahrendorf puts it, to “aggregation of interest groups,” that is, to the formation of coalitions, attracting allies based on real or perceived common interests and goals, and mobilization of resources. Most often, the process of aggregation and unification is based on the principle of “negative cooperation,” according to which we act according to the principle: “the enemy of my enemy is my friend.”

Conflict behavior, like any purposeful action, presupposes a certain cognitive basis, a picture of the world. Awareness of the conflict by different parties leads to the formation of polar images of reality. The reasons, the object of the conflict, incentives, goals and interests of one’s own and the other side receive exactly the opposite interpretation from opponents: “we defend truth, goodness and justice, and “they” - ...”. Thus, the process of forming an “enemy image” begins, which acts as an additional and quite strong conflict-generating factor (see lecture 8). The image of an enemy can arise spontaneously in the process of conflict interaction, but it can be constructed consciously to enhance conflict motivation by the opponents themselves or by third forces, provocateurs. A vivid image of the enemy removes restrictions on actions aimed at the opponent.

3) Stage of open conflict.

A. Initial conflict behavior. The conflict itself begins with an incident - an event or action that opens the transition of the conflict confrontation to the stage of open confrontation, direct confrontation of the parties. The accumulating tension in relations between opponents reaches a critical mass and leads to an explosion.

Therefore, almost any event can serve as an incident.

Direct confrontation usually begins with the use of verbal aggression. Initially, it is expressed in debates and the presentation of mutual claims, but very quickly there is a transition to a strategy of threats. Threats are intended to force the opponent to act in accordance with the demands placed on him, otherwise he will face severe negative sanctions. If the threats have no effect, there is a transition from verbal to direct aggression, to actions aimed at causing damage to the enemy. Initially, these actions take place on the periphery of the conflict; the clashes are of a reconnaissance nature and are a kind of test of strength. But gradually the spiral of conflict unwinds, and the law of escalation of conflict agents comes into effect. Its essence lies in the fact that an action (conflictogen) directed towards one side is followed by a counter-action of this party (response conflictogen), which is superior in strength and scale to the first action; the second action of the first side, in turn, is also done “with intensification” and so on in increasing order. Under these conditions, rational control over the situation weakens, and the dominant motivation becomes the desire to inflict maximum damage on the opponent, even to the detriment of the main goals and interests.

If the conflict involves not just individuals, but rather large social groups, organizations, institutional systems, then as the confrontation develops, a conflict transformation of the system occurs, its structure and the nature of interaction between members changes. Entry into the struggle leads to the emergence of fundamentally new functions: “leaders”, “strategists”, “ideologists”, “fighters”, etc. Changing the structure of the group, restructuring it in a “military manner” becomes an additional conflict-producing factor and strengthens the focus on fighting the enemy. In this case, the original goals and functions of the group or organization fade into the background or are completely lost. (An example is the situation described by Ilf and Petrov in the novel “The Golden Calf”: after the Hercules concern comes into conflict with the city municipal administration over the hotel premises it occupies, the main functions of the organization - harvesting and processing wood - are consigned to oblivion, The main content of the activity becomes the struggle for the hotel. The entire team gradually joins in the struggle, an initiative group is formed, headed by Comrade Polykhaev, i.e. the process of transformation of the system described above takes place).

B. Escalation of conflict. This stage is characterized by a sharp increase in violence, intensity and scale of the conflict. Opponents bring into action the entire conflict potential, all kinds of resources, their own and their supporters. Restrictions on the use of certain means of struggle are lifted, and almost any action towards the enemy becomes permissible.

The degree of mutual bitterness is so great that the opponents are not stopped even by the losses they have suffered. The struggle becomes an end in itself, its significance increases, and since the cost of defeat seems enormous, the parties strive for victory at any cost.

Conflict confrontation extends to almost all areas of real and potential interaction; there are no neutral zones in which agreement is possible. More and more new participants are joining the conflict, sometimes against their will.

B. De-escalation and end of the conflict. The struggle, using all resources and reaching an extreme degree of brutality, cannot continue indefinitely. Sooner or later, the resources of one or all parties involved in the conflict are depleted and de-escalation of the conflict begins.

This process may be associated not only with the disappearance of resources, but also with the intervention of some “third forces” aimed at ending the conflict and reconciling the parties. Ending the conflict is possible in the following ways:

1. Complete mutual destruction and disappearance of conflicting systems. Of course, we are not necessarily talking about physical destruction; it could be the breakup of a family, the collapse of competing firms, etc. This termination option is completely destructive.

2. Violence or suppression. The essence is that the stronger party forces the weaker to unconditional submission and acceptance of its demands. This option may seem effective primarily because it makes it possible to quickly end the conflict. But it cannot be considered completely constructive, since the defeated will strive for revenge in one form or another, which is fraught with the resumption of conflict confrontation.

3. Disconnection. It means the cessation of interaction, the severance of relations between the conflicting parties. Separation can be carried out by the voluntary withdrawal of the parties from the conflict zone (for example, when employees in conflict with each other leave the organization), by the “flight” of one of the participants in the conflict, or separation occurs due to the intervention of a third party, which, using force or persuasion, “separates” the participants. Separation can be real (spatial) when the parties stop direct contact (for example, the divorce of spouses who then stop dating); symbolic, when opponents, remaining in the same physical and social space, stop communicating and “do not notice” each other; structural, when opponents find themselves in different segments of the social space (for example, conflicting employees are “divorced” into different departments.

Disunion ends the conflict, but the problem is that complete separation is not always possible; it is especially difficult in case of group conflict or conflict between large communities: ethnic, religious, social classes, states. Therefore, the separation of the parties is often temporary and the conflict can resume with renewed vigor.

4. Reconciliation. This method of conflict resolution presupposes mutual agreement of the parties to stop conflicting actions. Reconciliation can be caused by a change in the situation (for example, the disappearance of the object of the conflict), depletion of the conflicting resources of the parties, or a voluntary and conscious exit from the conflict (“a bad peace is better than a good quarrel”). There are several ways of reconciliation. The simplest and most common is compromise- a way out of a conflict situation based on mutual concessions of the parties. With this method of reconciliation, it is important that each of the participants achieves something. There is a rational strategy: it is better to gain something than to lose everything. But the problem is that most often some finite value is divided and the needs of the parties cannot be fully satisfied. Therefore, as a rule, a compromise is temporary; the final solution to the problem is postponed to a later date. Another way of reconciliation is consensus. Unlike compromise, consensus involves the final resolution of a problem through a collective decision of all participants.

Consensus allows not only to minimize losses, but also to increase gains for the parties. This method is used in cases where:

The subject of the dispute is complex, and the interests of the parties are too significant for a simple decision to be made;

Both sides are ready to search and analyze hidden needs and interests;

Sufficient time and resources to search for alternatives that satisfy the claims of both sides;

The parties are interested in a long-term solution to the problem.

Its consequences depend on how the conflict is resolved and what the results of this process are. This is emphasized in L. Kriegsberg's cyclic theory of conflict. Its essence lies in the fact that the results and consequences of one conflict become the basis for the emergence of a new conflict. This can be illustrated by the following example. The First World War ended with the complete defeat of the German Empire and its allies (completion according to the “winner - loser” model). The consequence of this was a radical change in the geopolitical situation in the world and the humiliated position of Germany, which suffered serious territorial losses and found itself in a very difficult economic situation due to large reparations. These consequences, the difficult economic situation and the feeling of humiliation gave rise to a desire for revenge at the mass level, which became the basis for the spread of Nazism and the emergence of a new conflict situation that led to the Second World War.

Methods of conflict resolution: arbitration, mediation and negotiations.

Very often conflicts cannot be resolved by the participants themselves. In this case, the help of a third party is needed, taking a neutral, objective position in relation to all parties to the conflict. One of the most common conflict resolution technologies is arbitration. Its essence lies in the fact that the conflicting parties choose one or more neutral persons, whose decision they are obliged to obey. A.V. Dmitriev identifies the following arbitration options:

Binding arbitration, in which the final decision of the arbitrators is binding;

Limited arbitration - the parties limit the risk of defeat by setting limits on concessions before the commencement of arbitration;

Mediated arbitration is a mixed conflict resolution where the parties agree that issues not resolved through mediation will be resolved through arbitration;

Recommendative arbitration differs from binding arbitration in that the arbitrator's decision is advisory in nature, the parties can accept it or reject it. Mediation differs from arbitration in that the parties themselves participate in the negotiation process and, with the help of a mediator, find a mutually acceptable solution. The mediator organizes the negotiation process, maintains its constructive nature and facilitates the development of a mutually acceptable solution. O.V. Allahverdova identifies the following principles of mediation:

Voluntariness - entry into the negotiation process is strictly voluntary, all decisions are made only by mutual agreement of the parties and each party can at any time refuse mediation and terminate negotiations;

Equality of the parties, neither of which has procedural advantages;

Neutrality of the mediator, who must maintain an impartial attitude towards each party;

Confidentiality - all information must remain within the negotiation process.

During the negotiation process, the mediator performs the following functions.

1. Analytical function associated with the fact that the mediator encourages conflictants to analyze the conflict situation and discuss all possible options for solving the problem.

2. Function of organizing the negotiation process. The mediator helps the parties agree on the negotiation procedure, manages the negotiation process, and maintains correct relations between the participants.

3. The mediator acts as a generator of ideas and helps the parties find a fundamentally new solution to the problem.

4. The mediator expands the resources of the negotiators by providing them with the necessary information, while distorting it must be avoided.

5. The mediator adjusts the realism of the ideas expressed and the feasibility of the decisions made.

6. The mediator teaches the parties the process of negotiations, teaches the parties to form an attitude towards cooperation.

A necessary condition for the development of a social system is the peaceful coexistence of the individual and society as a whole. But it is not always possible to interact amicably and avoid splits. Colliding interests, goals, and ambitions often give rise to conflict situations.

The conflict is passing several stages– pre-conflict, open, final and post-conflict. Part of the open period is escalation.

It represents an intensification, aggravation of the situation, and the spread of confrontation. Escalation is characterized by following signs:

• Compression of the cognitive sphere,
• The emergence of an enemy image
• Increasing emotional tension
• Going for personal attacks
• Loss and blur of discord object,
• Expanding boundaries of the conflict.

In the process of escalation, the enemy’s image is distorted, acquires a negative connotation, and its objective assessment is displaced. All blame is placed on the opponent and only unfavorable actions are expected from him. The opposing forces attract the necessary forces and resources, additional funds. Everything can go to the limit, to the extreme. Therefore, it is highly not recommended:

• Subject your opponent (partner) to criticism,
• Show your superiority
• Ignore opinions and ignore interests,
• Consider his intentions and actions base,
• Exaggerate your own merits and minimize the contribution of your opponent,
• Show aggression and violence
• Humiliate,
• Pour out a lot of complaints.

There are two types of escalation:

1. “Attack-Defense”. One side puts forward demands, but the other does not accept them and defends its positions. If one opponent does not fulfill the conditions, then the other increases the pressure and sets tougher ones.
2. "Attack-Attack." A typical conflict situation. Aggressive behavior spills out one by one. Every time the requirements become more stringent, and the actions become more assertive. Opponents are driven by the desire to punish each other.

Stages of escalation

Researcher F. Glazl presented nine stages (stages) of the growth of a conflict situation:

1. Gain. Positions are becoming tougher and opinions are clashing more often. Present conscious perception of tension which causes awkwardness and constraint. Participants at this stage are convinced that the situation can be resolved through constructive dialogue.
2. Debate. At this stage, contradictions and disagreements manifest themselves in active disputes. Divergence in thinking leads to discord. Black and white perception dominates, there are no halftones. It is possible to attract adherents and other people's support. A full-fledged battle for supremacy begins. In the first two stages of escalation, it is possible to resolve the situation, but if this cannot be done through debate, then the conflict develops further and moves to the third stage.
3. Active actions. Conversations become ineffective. Actions begin be misinterpreted, labeling occurs. Competition intensifies, and empathy completely evaporates.
4. False image. Each participant concentrates on his own image. Yours and your opponent's the images are completely distorted. There is mutual irritation and anger.
5. Loss of face. The attacks become more frequent and obvious, and morality is gradually lost. The situation is becoming tougher and much more serious, the parties are already openly hostile. The conflict is radical.
6. Threats. The stressful situation increases as a reaction to demands. Threats appear, which spin up quickly. Opponents take various steps, showing their strength and determination. The eventfulness accelerates, everything is layered, intensified, and turmoil appears.
7. Limited strikes. There is pressure and coercion. Participants do not take into account the consequences after decisions and actions have been made. What is harmful and non-ecological for one person becomes useful for another.
8. Defeat. The desire to expose and remove the enemy. Harm is caused depending on the scale of the situation (physical, spiritual, material, mental).
9. Decay. The final stage of conflict escalation. There is no way back for the parties. Final destruction occurs. The conflict is subsiding.

All nine stages are combined into three phases:

Phase 1– from hope to disappointment (fear) and includes stages 1, 2 and 3;

Phase 2– from fear to loss of face (stages 4-6);

Phase 3– loss of will and the path to violence (stages 7-9).

Escalation as an integral part of the conflict is a natural phenomenon. The reason must be sought at the very beginning of the disagreement. The basis of any conflict is accumulated contradictions. They can be economic, interpersonal, social, ideological, interstate. So, the reasons for the escalation are:

• Ignoring interests
• Ignorance and misunderstanding of the other party's intentions and goals,
• Humiliation,
• The opponent’s failure to fulfill or ignore his obligations,
• Creating barriers to the implementation of another's plans.

Behavior tactics

There are several tactics of behavior when conflict increases - hard, medium (neutral) and soft. The choice of each of them depends on various factors: the chosen strategy, personal characteristics, the status of the enemy, the significance of resolving the situation, the consequences, the length of the conflict, the harm caused.

1. Harsh tactics include threats, grab and hold, and psychological or physical violence. This force pressure methods which can lead to serious consequences. Such tactics provoke similar behavior from the other side.
2. The average ones are tactics of sanctioning, convincing argumentation, fixing one’s position, and demonstrative actions. They do not cause direct harm like hard ones and are not manipulation like soft ones.
3. Soft ones are tactics of hidden lessons, provision of services, deals, flattery, the art of playing around. They do not involve causing psychological or physical harm, but are aimed at firmly defending their interests and positions. Such tactics influence the other side indirectly, softening its resistance and claims.

Following easy tactics can create the impression that the opponent is weak, and that this is a forced measure to take a peaceful position. The use of heavy tactics brings the risk of appearing as a hostile bully and establishing an aggressive style of behavior. Each of them can be effective for a certain situation. It is also possible to change tactics to achieve the desired result.

Escalation is an integral part of any conflict situation, an objective pattern. She plays both a positive and negative role. The hidden problem comes to light, the participants achieve goals and interests in the same way, the usual pace of life is disrupted and strength is taken away, the system of connections is disrupted and at the same time balance is restored.

Escalation is an increase, expansion, strengthening, spreading of something

What does it mean to escalate a dispute, conflict, incident, war, tension or issue?

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Escalation is the definition

Escalation is term (from the English Escalation, lit. ascent using a ladder), denoting a gradual increase, increase, build-up, aggravation, expansion of something. The term became widespread in the Soviet press in the 1960s in connection with the expansion of US military aggression in Indochina. Used in relation to armed conflicts, disputes, and various problems.

Escalation is gradual increase, growth, expansion, build-up (of armaments, etc.), spread (of conflict, etc.), aggravation of the situation.

Escalation is consistent and steady increase, increase, intensification, expansion of struggle, conflict, aggression.

Escalation is expansion, build-up, increase of something, intensification.

Escalation of conflict is the development of a conflict that progresses over time; escalation of confrontation, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are more intense than the previous ones.

Escalation of war is a militaristic concept of the gradual transformation of a military-political conflict into a crisis situation and war.

Problem escalation is raising a problem for discussion to a higher level if it is impossible to solve it at the current level.

Customs tariff escalation is increase in customs duty rates depending on the degree of processing of goods.

The tariff structure of many countries primarily protects domestic producers of finished goods, especially without preventing the import of raw materials and semi-finished products.

For example, nominal and effective tariffs on food products are 4.7 and 10.6%, respectively, in the United States, 25.4 and 50.3% in Japan, and 10.1 and 17.8% in the European Union. Almost twice the actual level of food taxation over the nominal level is achieved by imposing import duties on the food products from which they are produced. Therefore, it is the effective, and not the nominal level of customs protection that is the subject of negotiations during trade conflicts between the three centers of a modern market economy.

Tariff escalation is an increase in the level of customs taxation of goods as the degree of their processing increases.

The higher the percentage increase in the tariff rate as you move from raw materials to finished products, the higher the degree of protection of finished product manufacturers from external competition.

Tariff escalation in developed countries stimulates the production of raw materials in developing countries and preserves technological backwardness, since only with raw materials, the customs tax of which is minimal, can they really break into their market. At the same time, the market for finished products is practically closed to developing countries due to significant tariff escalation that takes place in most developed countries.

So, a customs tariff is an instrument of trade policy and state regulation of the country’s domestic market in its interaction with the world market; a systematized set of rates of customs duties applied to goods transported across the customs border, systematized in accordance with the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity; a specific rate of customs duty payable upon the export or import of a specific product into the customs territory of a country. Customs duties can be classified according to the method of collection, object of taxation, nature, origin, types of rates and method of calculation. Customs duty is imposed on the customs value of the goods - the normal price of the goods, formed on the open market between independent seller and buyer, at which it can be sold in the country of destination at the time of filing the customs declaration.

The nominal duty rate is indicated in the import tariff and only approximately indicates the level of customs protection of the country. The effective tariff rate shows the actual level of customs duty on final imported goods, calculated taking into account the duties imposed on imports of intermediate goods. To protect national producers of finished products and stimulate the import of raw materials and semi-finished products, tariff escalation is used - increasing the level of customs taxation of goods as the degree of their processing increases.

For example: the level of customs taxation of leather goods built according to the principle of the production chain (hide - leather - leather products) increases as the degree of processing of the skin increases. In the USA, the tariff escalation scale is 0.8-3.7-9.2%, in Japan - 0-8.5-12.4, in the European Union - 0-2.4-5.5%. According to GATT, tariff escalation is especially severe in developed countries.

Imports of developed countries from developing countries (import tariff rate, %)

Conflict escalation

Conflict escalation (from the Latin scala - “ladder”) refers to the development of a conflict that progresses over time; escalation of confrontation, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are more intense than the previous ones. The escalation of a conflict represents that part of it that begins with an incident and ends with a weakening of the struggle, the transition to the end of the conflict.

The escalation of the conflict is characterized by the following signs:

1. Narrowing of the cognitive sphere in behavior and activity. In the process of escalation, a transition occurs to more primitive forms of display.

2. Displacement of adequate perception of another, by the image of the enemy.

The image of the enemy as a holistic idea of ​​the opponent, which integrates distorted and illusory features, begins to form during the latent period of the conflict as a result of perception determined by negative assessments. As long as there is no counteraction, as long as the threats are not implemented, the image of the enemy is indirect. It can be compared to a weakly developed photograph, where the image is fuzzy and pale.

In the process of escalation, the image of the enemy appears more and more clearly and gradually displaces the objective image.

The image of the enemy that dominates in a conflict situation is evidenced by:

Mistrust;

Placing blame on the enemy;

Negative expectation;

Identification with evil;

The “zero-sum” view (“whatever benefits the enemy harms us,” and vice versa);

Deindividuation (“anyone who belongs to a given group is automatically our enemy”);

Refusal of condolences.

The image of the enemy is reinforced by:

Increase in negative emotions;

Expectation of destructive actions from the other party;

Negative stereotypes and attitudes;

The seriousness of the object of the conflict for the person (group);

Duration of the conflict.

Arises as a reaction to an increase in the threat of possible damage; decreased controllability of the opposite side; inability to realize your interests to the desired extent in a short time; opponent's resistance.

4. Transition from arguments to claims and personal attacks.

When people's opinions collide, people usually try to argue for them. Others, assessing a person’s position, thereby indirectly assess his ability to argue. A person usually adds significant personal color to the fruits of his intellect. Therefore, criticism of the results of his intellectual activity can be perceived as a negative assessment of him as a person. In this case, criticism is perceived as a threat to a person’s self-esteem, and attempts to defend oneself lead to a shift in the subject of the conflict to the personal plane.

5. The growth of the hierarchical rank of interests is violated and defended, its polarization.

More intense action affects the other party's more important interests. Therefore, the escalation of the conflict can be considered as a process of deepening contradictions, i.e. as the process of growth of the hierarchical rank of interests is disrupted.

In the process of escalation, the interests of opponents seem to be drawn into opposite poles. If in the pre-conflict situation they could somehow coexist, then when the conflict escalates, the existence of some is possible only by ignoring the interests of the other side.

6. Use of violence.

A characteristic sign of conflict escalation is the use of the last argument - violence. Many violent acts are motivated by revenge. Aggression is associated with the desire for some kind of internal compensation (for lost prestige, decreased self-esteem, etc.), compensation for damage. Actions in conflict may be driven by a desire for retribution for damage.

7. The loss of the original subject of disagreement lies in the fact that the confrontation that began through the disputed object develops into a more global clash, during which the original subject of the conflict no longer plays a major role. The conflict becomes independent of the reasons it was caused, and it continues after they have become insignificant.

8. Expanding the boundaries of the conflict.

The conflict is generalized, i.e. transition to deeper contradictions, many different points of contact arise. The conflict is spreading over a large area. There is an expansion of its temporal and spatial boundaries.

9. Increasing the number of participants.

This can occur in the process of escalating the conflict through the involvement of more and more participants. The transformation of interpersonal conflict into intergroup conflict, a quantitative increase and change in the structure of groups participating in the confrontation, changes the nature of the conflict, expanding the range of means used in it.

As the conflict intensifies, regression of the conscious sphere of the psyche occurs. This process is wave-like in nature, based on the unconscious and subconscious levels of mental activity. It does not develop chaotically, but gradually, according to the plan of the ontogenesis of the psyche, but in the opposite direction).

The first two stages reflect the development before the conflict situation. The importance of one’s own desires and arguments grows. There is a fear that the ground for a joint solution to the problem will be lost. Mental tension is growing. Measures taken by one of the parties to change the opponent’s position are understood by the opposite party as a signal for escalation.

The third stage is the actual beginning of escalation. All expectations are focused on actions, replacing futile discussions. However, the expectations of the participants are paradoxical: both sides hope to use force and rigidity to force a change in the opponent’s position, while no one is ready to voluntarily give in. A mature view of reality is sacrificed in favor of a simplified approach that is easier to maintain emotionally.

The real issues of the conflict lose importance while the face of the enemy becomes the center of attention.

Age levels of emotional and social-cognitive functioning of the human psyche:

Beginning of the latent phase;

Latent phase;

Demonstrative phase;

Aggressive phase;

Battle phase.

At the fourth stage of functioning, the psyche regresses to approximately the level corresponding to the age of 6-8 years. A person still has an image of another, but he is no longer ready to reckon with the thoughts, feelings and state of this other. In the emotional sphere, a black and white approach begins to dominate, that is, everything that is “not me” or “not us” is bad, and therefore rejected.

At the fifth stage of escalation, clear signs of progressive regression appear in the form of absoluteization of the negative assessment of the opponent and the positive assessment of oneself. Sacred values, beliefs and the highest moral obligations are at stake. Force and violence take on an impersonal form, the perception of the opposite side freezes in the solid image of the enemy. The enemy is devalued to the status of a thing and deprived of human traits. However, these same people are able to function normally within their group. Therefore, it is difficult for an inexperienced observer to perceive the deeply regressed perceptions of others and take measures to resolve the conflict.

Regression is not inevitable for any person in any difficult situation of social interaction. A lot depends on upbringing, on the assimilation of moral norms and everything that is called the social experience of constructive interaction.

Escalation of interstate conflicts

The escalation of armed conflict has a tactical role in military conflicts and clear rules for the use of armed force.

There are six stages of interstate conflicts.

The first stage of a political conflict is characterized by the formed attitude of the parties regarding a specific contradiction or group of contradictions (this is a fundamental political attitude formed on the basis of certain objective and subjective contradictions and the corresponding economic, ideological, international legal, military-strategic, diplomatic relations regarding these contradictions , expressed in a more or less acute conflict form.)

The second phase of the conflict is the determination of the strategy by the warring parties and the forms of their struggle to resolve existing contradictions, taking into account the potential and possibilities of using various, including violent, means, the domestic and international situation.

The third stage is associated with the involvement of other participants in the struggle through blocs, alliances, and treaties.

The fourth stage is the intensification of the struggle, up to a crisis, which gradually embraces all participants on both sides and develops into a national crisis.

The fifth stage of the conflict is the transition of one of the parties to the practical use of force, initially for demonstrative purposes or on a limited scale.

The sixth stage is an armed conflict that begins with a limited conflict (limitations in goals, territories covered, scale and level of military operations, military means used) and is capable, under certain circumstances, of developing to higher levels of armed struggle (war as a continuation of politics) of all participants.

In international conflicts, the main actors are predominantly states:

Interstate conflicts (both opposing sides are represented by states or their coalitions);

National liberation wars (one side is represented by the state): anti-colonial, wars of peoples, against racism, as well as against governments acting in contradiction with the principles of democracy;

Internal internationalized conflicts (the state acts as an assistant to one of the parties in an internal conflict on the territory of another state).

Interstate conflict often takes the form of war. It is necessary to draw a clear line between war and military conflict:

Military conflicts are smaller in scale. Goals are limited. The reasons are controversial. The cause of the war is deep economic and ideological contradictions between states. Wars are larger;

War is the state of the entire society participating in it, military conflict is the state of a social group;

War partially changes the further development of the state; a military conflict can lead to only minor changes.

Escalation of World War II in the Far East

The leadership of a distant Asian country, which had not known military defeat for a millennium, made the most important conclusions for itself: Germany is finally winning in Europe, Russia is disappearing as a factor in world politics, Britain is retreating on all fronts, isolationist and materialistic America will not be able to overnight turn into a military giant - such chance comes once in a millennium. Moreover, dissatisfaction with the sanctions of the United States has spread in the country. And Japan made its choice. 189 Japanese bombers came from the direction of the sun over the main American base in the Hawaiian Islands.

There has been a tectonic shift in the world struggle. Japan, whose military power Stalin so feared, through its actions brought a great overseas power into the camp of opponents of the Berlin-Tokyo-Rome “axis”.

The self-blinding of the samurai, the criminal pride of Japanese militarism, turned events in such a way that Russia, standing on the brink of an abyss, had a great ally. There were 1.7 million people serving in the rapidly deploying US military so far, but that number was growing inexorably. The American Navy had 6 aircraft carriers, 17 battleships, 36 cruisers, 220 destroyers, 114 submarines, and the US Air Force - 13 thousand aircraft. But much of the American military was focused on the Atlantic. Actually in the Pacific Ocean, the Japanese aggressor was opposed by the joint forces of the Americans, British and Dutch - 22 divisions (400 thousand people), about 1.4 thousand aircraft, 4 aircraft carriers with 280 aircraft, 11 battleships, 35 cruisers, 100 destroyers, 86 submarines.

When Hitler learned of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, his delight was genuine. Now the Japanese will completely tie up the United States in the Pacific Ocean and the Americans will have no time for the European theater of operations. Britain will be weakened in the Far East and on the eastern approaches to India. America and Britain will not be able to provide assistance to Russia, isolated by Germany and Japan. The Wehrmacht has absolutely a free hand to do whatever it wants with its enemy.

The United States has entered the world struggle. Roosevelt sent to Congress a military budget of 109 billion dollars - no one, anywhere, had ever spent so much money on military needs in a year. Boeing began to prepare for the release of the B-17 (“Flying Fortress”), and later the B-29 (“Superfortress”); Consolidated produced the B-24 Liberator bomber; North American company - P-51 (Mustang). On the evening of the first day of 1942, President F. Roosevelt, Prime Minister W. Churchill, USSR Ambassador M.M. Litvinov and Chinese Ambassador T. Sung signed a document called the “Declaration of the United Nations” in Roosevelt’s office. This is how the anti-Hitler coalition took shape.

And the Japanese continued their phenomenal streak of victories throughout the first months of 1942. They landed on Borneo and continued to spread influence over the Dutch East Indies, taking the city of Manado on Celebes with the help of an airborne assault. A few days later, they entered the Philippine capital of Manila, launched an offensive against American troops on Bataan and struck Rabaul, a strategically located British base in the Bismarck Archipelago. In Malaya, British troops left Kuala Lumpur. All these messages filled the German leadership with delight. They weren't wrong. The Wehrmacht received the necessary time to recover from the Battle of Moscow and decide the fate of the war against the USSR in a carefully prepared summer campaign.

Escalation of the Chechen War 1994-1996

The First Chechen War was a military conflict between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, which took place mainly on the territory of Chechnya between 1994 and 1996. The result of the conflict was the victory of the Chechen armed forces and the withdrawal of Russian troops, mass destruction, casualties and the preservation of Chechnya's independence.

The Chechen Republic seceded from the USSR adhering to the withdrawal procedure and the USSR Constitution. However, despite this, and the fact that these actions were recognized and approved by the governments of the USSR and the RSFSR, the Russian Federation decided not to take into account the norms of international law and its own legislation. Having recovered from the political crisis in the country since the end of 1993, Russian intelligence services are beginning to exercise increasing influence on the top leadership of the state, and are beginning to actively interfere in the affairs of independent neighboring states (former republics of the USSR). In relation to the Chechen Republic, an attempt is being made to annex it to the Russian Federation.

A transport and financial blockade of Chechnya was established, which led to the collapse of the Chechen economy and the rapid impoverishment of the Chechen population. After this, the Russian special services began an operation to incite an internal Chechen armed conflict. Anti-Dudaev opposition forces were trained at Russian military bases and supplied with weapons. However, although the anti-Dudaev forces accepted Russian help, their leaders stated that the armed confrontation in Chechnya was an internal Chechen affair and in the event of Russian military intervention they would forget their contradictions and, together with Dudayev, would defend Chechen independence.

Inciting a fratricidal war, moreover, did not fit into the mentality of the Chechen people and contradicted their national traditions, therefore, despite military assistance from Moscow and the passionate desire of the leaders of the Chechen opposition to seize power in Grozny with Russian bayonets, an armed confrontation between the Chechens never reached the desired level of intensity, and the Russian leadership decided on the need for its own military operation in Chechnya, which turned into a difficult task given the fact that the Soviet army left a significant military arsenal in the Chechen Republic (42 tanks, 90 units of other armored vehicles, 150 guns, 18 Grad installations, several training aircraft, anti-aircraft, missile and portable air defense systems, a huge number of anti-tank weapons, small arms and ammunition). The Chechens also created their own regular army and began producing their own machine gun, the Borzoi.

Escalation of conflicts in the Middle East: Iran and Afghanistan (1977-1980)

1. Iran. The relatively successful actions of American diplomacy in the Far East were canceled out by the losses that the United States suffered in the Middle East. Washington's main partner in this part of the world was Iran. The country was led authoritarianly by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who in the 1960s and 1970s carried out a number of reforms to modernize Iran economically, and also took measures to limit the influence of religious leaders, in particular, by expelling R. Khomeini from the country. Having not received the requested amount of support for his reforms in the West, the Shah turned to the USSR.

However, the “oil shock” of 1973-1974. gave Iran the necessary resources for economic development - Iran was one of the largest suppliers of “black gold” to world markets. Tehran has developed an ambitious plan for the construction of prestigious facilities (nuclear power plants, the world's largest petrochemical plant, metallurgical plants). These programs exceeded the country's capabilities and needs.

A course was taken to modernize the Iranian army. By the mid-1970s, arms purchases in the United States absorbed $5-6 billion a year. In the second half of the 1960s, orders for weapons and military equipment were placed in Great Britain, France and Italy for approximately the same amount. The Shah, with the support of the United States, achieved the transformation of Iran into the leading military power in the region. In 1969, Iran declared territorial claims to neighboring Arab countries and in 1971 occupied three islands in the Strait of Hormuz at the exit from the Persian Gulf to the Indian Ocean.

Following this, Tehran de facto established control over part of the waters of the Shatg al-Arab River bordering Iraq, which resulted in a severance of diplomatic relations with Iraq. In 1972, conflict broke out between Iran and Iraq. Iran began to support the Kurdish opposition movement in Iraq. However, in 1975, Iran-Iraq relations were normalized, and Tehran stopped providing assistance to the Kurds. The United States and Britain, considering Iran an ally, encouraged the Shah's government in its intention to play a leading role in the Persian Gulf zone.

Although the Carter administration did not approve of the repressive policies of the Shah within the country, Washington valued partnership with Tehran, especially after the threat of the use of “oil weapons” by Arab countries arose. Iran cooperated with the United States and Western European countries in stabilizing the energy market. The rapprochement with the United States was accompanied by the penetration of American culture and way of life into Iran. This was in conflict with the national traditions of the Iranians, their conservative way of life, and their mentality based on Islamic values. Westernization was accompanied by arbitrariness of the authorities, corruption, structural breakdown of the economy, and deterioration in the financial situation of the population. This increased dissatisfaction. In 1978, a critical mass of anti-monarchist sentiment accumulated in the country. Spontaneous rallies and demonstrations began to occur everywhere. To suppress the protests they tried to use the police, special services and the army. Rumors of torture and murder of arrested anti-Shah activists finally blew up the situation. On January 9, an uprising began in Tehran. The army was paralyzed and did not come to the aid of the government. On January 12, Tehran radio, seized by the rebels, announced the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran. On January 16, 1979, the Shah, accompanied by family members, left the country.

On February 1, 1979, Grand Ayatollah R. Khomeini returned to Tehran from exile in France. Now they began to call him “imam”. He instructed his comrade Mohammed Bazargan to form an interim government. On April 1, 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) was officially proclaimed.

On November 4, 1979, Iranian students stormed the US Embassy in Tehran and took the American diplomats there as hostages. The participants of the action demanded that "Washington extradite the Shah, who was in the United States, to Iran. Their demands were supported by the Iranian authorities. In response, President J. Carter announced a severance of diplomatic relations with Iran on April 7, 1980. Sanctions were imposed against Tehran. J. Carter imposed a ban on the import of Iranian oil and announced the freezing of Iranian assets (about $12 billion) in American banks.In May 1980, the countries of the European Community joined sanctions against Iran.

Events in Tehran gave rise to a second “oil shock” associated with fears of a possible halt in Iranian oil exports. Oil prices soared from $12-13 per barrel in 1974 to $36 and even $45 on the free market in 1980. With the second “oil shock,” a new economic recession began in the world, which lasted until 1981, and in some countries - until 1982

The international situation has become even more tense following the escalation of the conflict in Afghanistan. Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, Afghanistan was rocked by political crises. The situation in the country remained very tense when a coup d'etat took place on July 17, 1973. King Zahir Shah, who was undergoing treatment in Italy, was declared deposed, and the king's brother Mohammed Daoud came to power in Kabul. The monarchy was abolished and the country declared the Republic of Afghanistan. The new regime was soon recognized by the international community. Moscow greeted the coup approvingly, since M. Daoud had long been known in the USSR, having served as Prime Minister of Afghanistan for many years.

In relations with the great powers, the new government continued the policy of balancing, without giving preference to any of them. Moscow has been increasing its economic and military assistance to Afghanistan, expanding its influence in the Afghan army and providing tacit support to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. M. Daoud's visit to the Soviet Union in 1974 demonstrated the stability of Kabul's ties with Moscow; loan payments were deferred and promises of new ones were made. Despite Daoud’s gradual shift away from focusing on the USSR, the USSR was three times greater than the United States in terms of the volume of assistance provided to Afghanistan. At the same time, Moscow supported the People's Democratic Army of Afghanistan (PDPA, which positioned itself as a local communist party), promoting the unity of its factions and pushing them to take decisive action against M. Daoud.

On April 27, 1978, in Afghanistan, army officers - members and supporters of the PDPA - carried out a new coup d'etat. M. Daoud and some of the ministers were killed. Power in the country passed to the PDPA, which declared the events of April 27 a “national democratic revolution.” Afghanistan was renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). The highest authority was the Revolutionary Council, headed by the General Secretary of the PDPA Central Committee, Nur Mohammed Taraki.

The USSR, and after it a number of other countries (about 50 in total), recognized the new regime. Relations with the Soviet Union, based on the principles of “brotherhood and revolutionary solidarity,” were declared a priority in the foreign policy of the DRA. In the first months after the April Revolution, a series of agreements and contracts were concluded between the USSR and the DRA in all areas of socio-economic, cultural and military-political cooperation, and numerous advisers from the USSR arrived in the country. The semi-ally nature of Soviet-Afghan relations was secured by the Treaty of Friendship, Good Neighborhood and Cooperation for a period of 20 years, signed by N. M. Taraki and L. I. Brezhnev on December 5, 1978 in Moscow. The agreement provided for cooperation between the parties in the military field, but did not specifically stipulate the possibility of stationing the armed forces of one side on the territory of the other.

However, a split soon occurred within the PDPA itself, as a result of which Hafizullah Amin came to power. Social and economic reforms carried out in the country by force and ill-considered, as well as repression, the number of victims of which, according to various estimates, may exceed a million people, led to a crisis. The government in Kabul began to lose influence in the provinces, which came under the control of the leaders of local clans. Provincial authorities formed their own armed units capable of resisting the government army. By the end of 1979, the anti-government opposition, acting under traditionalist Islamic slogans, controlled 18 of the 26 provinces of Afghanistan. There was a threat of the fall of the Kabul government. Amin's positions fluctuated, especially since the USSR ceased to consider him as the most convenient figure for implementing socialist transformations in the country.

Capture of Kabul

The USSR's intervention in Afghan affairs was condemned. He was especially harshly criticized by the USA, China and Western European countries. The leaders of the leading Western European communist parties spoke out in condemnation of Moscow.

The most serious consequence of the Afghan events was the deterioration of the international situation as a whole. The United States began to suspect that the Soviet Union was preparing to break into the Persian Gulf region in order to establish control over its oil resources. Six days after the start of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, on January 3, 1980, President Carter sent an appeal to the Senate asking that the SALT II treaty signed in Vienna be withdrawn from ratification, which as a result was never ratified. At the same time, the American administration officially stated that it would remain within the limits agreed upon in Vienna if the Soviet Union followed its example. The severity of the conflict was slightly smoothed out, but the detente came to an end. Tensions began to rise.

On January 23, 1980, J. Carter delivered his annual State of the Union address, in which he announced a new foreign policy doctrine. The Persian Gulf region was declared a zone of US interests, for the protection of which the United States is ready to use armed force. In accordance with the “Carter Doctrine,” attempts by any power to establish control over the Persian Gulf region were declared in advance by the American leadership as an encroachment on important US interests. Washington has clearly stated its intention to “resist such attempts by any means, including the use of military force.” The ideologist of this doctrine was Z. Brzezinski, who managed to convince the president that the Soviet Union was forming an “anti-American axis” in Asia consisting of the USSR, India and Afghanistan. In response, it was proposed to create a “counter-axis” (USA-Pakistan-China-Saudi Arabia). Contradictions between Z. Brzezinski and Secretary of State S. Vance, who still considered the US priority to maintain constructive relations with the USSR, led to the resignation of S. Vance on April 2, 1980.

Reacting to the Afghan events, Washington made changes in its approach to military-political issues of world politics. Secret Presidential Directive No. 59, dated July 25, 1980, outlined the main provisions of the US “new nuclear strategy.” Their meaning was to return to the idea of ​​​​the possibility of winning a nuclear war. The directive emphasized the old idea of ​​a counterforce strike, which in the new interpretation was supposed to become a key element of a “flexible response.” The American side began to proceed from the need to demonstrate to the Soviet Union the ability of the United States to withstand a prolonged nuclear conflict and win it.

The USSR and the USA had a distorted understanding of the intentions of the other side. The American administration believed that the invasion of Afghanistan meant Moscow's choice in favor of global confrontation. The Soviet leadership was confident that the Afghan events, which, from their point of view, were of purely secondary, regional significance, served for Washington only as a pretext for resuming the global arms race, which it had always secretly strived for.

There was no uniformity of assessments among NATO countries. Western European countries did not consider Moscow's intervention in Afghanistan an event of global significance. Détente was more important to them than to the United States. Realizing this, J. Carter constantly warned European allies against the “erroneous belief in détente” and attempts to maintain constructive relations with Moscow. The states of Western Europe did not want to join American sanctions against the USSR. In 1980, when the United States boycotted the Olympic Games in Moscow, only Germany and Norway followed their example from European countries. But in the sphere of military-strategic relations, Western Europe continued to follow the US line.

Military conflict in Vietnam

As the aggression escalated, American regular units became increasingly drawn into hostilities. Any disguise and talk that the Americans were allegedly helping the Saigon authorities only with “advice” and “advisers” were discarded. Gradually, US troops began to play a major role in the fight against the national liberation movement in Indochina. If at the beginning of June 1965 the American expeditionary force in South Vietnam numbered 70 thousand people, then in 1968 it was already 550 thousand people.

But neither the aggressor's army of more than half a million, nor the latest technology used on an unprecedentedly wide scale, nor the use of chemical warfare over large areas, nor brutal bombings broke the resistance of the South Vietnamese patriots. By the end of 1968, according to official American data, more than 30 thousand were killed in South Vietnam and about 200 thousand American soldiers and officers were wounded.

Armed conflict in Vietnam

Such tactics of American imperialism arose from the US "new policy" in Asia, outlined by President Nixon in July 1969. He promised the American public that Washington would not take on new “commitments” in Asia, that American soldiers would not be used to suppress “internal rebellions,” and that “the Asians will decide their own affairs.” In relation to the Vietnam War, the “new policy” meant an increase in the number, reorganization and modernization of the military-political machine of the Saigon regime, which took on the main burden of the war with the South Vietnamese patriots. The United States provided air and artillery cover to Saigon troops, reducing the actions of American ground troops and thereby reducing its losses.

Sources and links

interpretive.ru – National Historical Encyclopedia

ru.wikipedia.org – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

uchebnik-online.com – Online textbooks

sbiblio.com - Library of educational and scientific literature

cosmomfk.ru - Gorkokhonky project

rosbo.ru – Business training in Russia

psyznaiyka.net – basics of psychology, general psychology, conflict management

usagressor.ru - American aggression

history-of-wars.ru - Military history of Russia

madrace.ru - Crazy race. Course: World War II

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