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In the small intestine going on mixing acidic chyme with alkaline secretions pancreas, intestinal glands and liver, depolymerization nutrients to final products ( monomers) that can enter the bloodstream chyme promotion in the distal direction excretion metabolites, etc.
Digestion in the small intestine.
Abdominal and parietal digestion carried out by secretion enzymes pancreas and intestinal juice with bile. The emerging pancreatic juice enters through the excretory ducts duodenum. The composition and properties of pancreatic juice depend on the quantity and quality of food.
A person produces per day 1.5-2.5 liters of pancreatic juice, isotonic to blood plasma, alkaline reaction (pH 7.5-8.8). This reaction is due to the content of ions bicarbonate, which provide neutralization of acidic gastric contents and create an alkaline environment in the duodenum, optimal for the action of pancreatic enzymes.
pancreatic juice contains enzymes for hydrolysis of all kinds of nutrients: proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Proteolytic enzymes enter the duodenum in the form of inactive proenzymes - trypsinogens, chymotrypsinogens, procarboxypeptidases A and B, elastase, etc., which are activated by enterokinase (an enzyme of the enterocytes of the Brunner glands).
The pancreatic juice contains lipolytic enzymes, which are released in an inactive (prophospholipase A) and active (lipase) state.
Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes neutral fats to fatty acids and monoglycerides, phospholipase A breaks down phospholipids to fatty acids and calcium ions.
Pancreatic alpha-amylase breaks down starch and glycogen, mainly to lisaccharopds and - partially - monosaccharides. Disaccharides are further, under the influence of maltase and lactase, converted into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose).
Hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid occurs under the influence of pancreatic ribonuclease, and the hydrolysis of deoxyribonucleic acid - under the influence of dezokenribonuclease.
The secretory cells of the pancreas outside the period of digestion are at rest and separate the juice only in connection with the periodic activity of the gastrointestinal tract. In response to the consumption of protein and carbohydrate foods (meat, bread), there is a sharp increase in secretion in the first two hours, with a maximum of juice separation in the second hour after eating. In this case, the duration of secretion can be from 4-5 hours (meat) to 9-10 hours (bread). When fatty foods are taken, the maximum rise in secretion occurs at the third hour, the duration of secretion for this stimulus is 5 hours.
Thus, the amount and composition of pancreatic secretion depends on quantity and quality, are controlled by receptive cells in the intestine, and primarily in the duodenum. The functional relationship of the pancreas, duodenum and liver with the bile ducts is based on the commonality of their innervation and hormonal regulation.
Secretion of the pancreas floor impact occurs nervous influences and humoral irritants that occur when food enters the digestive tract, as well as the sight, smell of food and the action of the usual environment for its reception. The process of separation of pancreatic juice is conventionally divided into cerebral, gastric and intestinal complex reflex phase. The intake of food into the oral cavity and pharynx causes reflex excitation of the digestive glands, including the secretion of the pancreas.
The secretion of the pancreas is stimulated by entering the duodenum HCI and digestion products. Its stimulation continues with the flow of bile. However, the pancreas in this phase of secretion is predominantly stimulated by the intestinal hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. Under the influence of secretin, a large amount of pancreatic juice is produced, rich in bicarbonates and poor in enzymes, cholecystokinin stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice, rich in enzymes. Pancreatic juice rich in enzymes is secreted only with the joint action of secretin and cholecystokinin on the gland. potentiated with acetylcholine.
The role of bile in digestion.
Bile creates in the duodenum favorable conditions for the activity of pancreatic enzymes, especially lipases. Bile acids emulsify fats, reducing the surface tension of fat droplets, which creates conditions for the formation of fine particles that can be absorbed without prior hydrolysis, contribute to an increase in the contact of fats with lipolytic enzymes. Bile provides absorption in the small intestine of water-insoluble higher fatty acids, cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins (D, E, K, A) and calcium salts, enhances the hydrolysis and absorption of proteins and carbohydrates, promotes the resynthesis of triglycerides in enterocytes.
Bile renders stimulating effect on the activity of intestinal villi, as a result of which the rate of absorption of substances in the intestine increases, participates in parietal digestion, creating favorable conditions for the fixation of enzymes on the intestinal surface. Bile is one of the stimulants of the secretion of the pancreas, small intestine juice, gastric mucus, along with enzymes involved in the processes of intestinal digestion, prevents the development of putrefactive processes, has a bacteriostatic effect on the intestinal flora. The daily secretion of bile in humans is 0.7-1.0 liters. Its constituent parts are bile acids, bilirubin, cholesterol, inorganic salts, fatty acids and neutral fats, lecithin.
The role of the secretion of the glands of the small intestine in digestion.
A person excretes up to 2.5 liters of intestinal juice, which is a product of the activity of the cells of the entire mucosa membranes of the small intestine, Brunner and Lieberkühn glands. The separation of intestinal juice is associated with the death of glandular marks. Continuous rejection of dead cells is accompanied by their intensive neoplasm. Intestinal juice contains enzymes involved in digestion. They hydrolyze peptides and peptones to amino acids, fats to glycerol and fatty acids, carbohydrates to monosaccharides. An important enzyme in the intestinal juice is enterokinase, which activates pancreatic trypsinogen.
Digestion in the small intestine is a three-link system of food assimilation: cavity digestion - membrane digestion - absorption.
Cavitary digestion in the small intestine is carried out due to digestive secrets and their enzymes, which enter the cavity of the small intestine (pancreatic secret, bile, intestinal juice) and act on the food substance that has undergone enzymatic processing in the stomach.
Enzymes involved in membrane digestion have different origins. Some of them are absorbed from the cavity of the small intestine ( pancreatic and intestinal juice enzymes), others, fixed on the cytoplasmic membranes of the microvilli, are the secret of enterocytes and work longer than those that came from the intestinal cavity. The main chemical stimulator of the secretory cells of the glands of the mucous membrane of the small intestine are the products of protein digestion by gastric and pancreatic juices, as well as fatty acids, disaccharides. The action of each chemical stimulus causes the release of intestinal juice with a certain set of enzymes. So, for example, fatty acids stimulate the formation of lipase by the intestinal glands, a diet with a reduced protein content leads to a sharp decrease in enterokinase activity in intestinal juice. However, not all intestinal enzymes are involved in specific enzyme adaptation processes. The formation of lipase in the intestinal mucosa does not change with either increased or reduced fat content in food. The production of peptidases also does not undergo significant changes, even with a sharp lack of protein in the diet.
Features of digestion in the small intestine.
The functional unit is the crypt and villus. A villus is an outgrowth of the intestinal mucosa, a crypt is, on the contrary, a deepening.
INTESTINAL JUICE slightly alkaline (рН=7.5-8), consists of two parts:
(a) liquid part juice (water, salt, without enzymes) is secreted by crypt cells;
(b) dense part juice ("mucous lumps") consists of epithelial cells that are continuously exfoliated from the top of the villi. (The entire mucous membrane of the small intestine is completely renewed in 3-5 days).
There are more than 20 enzymes in the dense part. Some of the enzymes are adsorbed on the surface of the glycocalyx (intestinal, pancreatic enzymes), the other part of the enzymes is part of the cell membrane of microvilli .. ( microvilli is an outgrowth of the cell membrane of enterocytes. The microvilli form a "brush border", which greatly increases the area over which hydrolysis and absorption occur). Enzymes are highly specialized, necessary for the final stages of hydrolysis.
Occurs in the small intestine abdominal and parietal digestion.
a) Cavitary digestion - the breakdown of large polymer molecules to oligomers in the intestinal cavity under the action of intestinal juice enzymes.
b) Parietal digestion - splitting of oligomers to monomers on the surface of microvilli under the action of enzymes fixed on this surface.
The large intestine and its role in digestion.
Under the influence of the motor activity of the small intestine, from 1.5 to 2 liters of chyme through the ileocecal valve enters large intestine (colorectal gastrointestinal tract), where the utilization of substances necessary for the body continues, excretion of metabolites and salts of heavy metals, the accumulation of dehydrated intestinal contents and its removal from the body. This part of the intestine provides immunobiological and competitive protection of the gastrointestinal tract from pathogenic microbes and participation of normal intestinal microflora in digestion (enzymatic hydrolysis, synthesis and absorption of monosaccharides, vitamins E, A, K, D and group B). The large intestine is able to partially compensate for the indigestion of the proximal parts of the digestive tract.
Enzyme excretion in the large intestine, as in the thin one, consists of the formation and accumulation of enzymes in epithelial cells, followed by their rejection, disintegration and transfer of enzymes to the intestinal cavity. Small amounts of peptidases, cathepsin, amylase, lipase, nuclease, and alkaline phosphatase are present in the colonic juice. In the process of hydrolysis in the large intestine, enzymes that come with food chyme from the small intestine also take part, but their significance is small. An important role in ensuring the hydrolysis of nutrient residues coming from the small intestine is played by enzymatic activity of normal intestinal microflora. The habitats of normal microorganisms are the terminal ileum and the proximal colon.
The predominant microbes in the colon an adult healthy person are non-spore obligate anaerobic bacilli (bifidumbacteria, which make up 90% of the entire intestinal flora) and facultative anaerobic bacteria (E. coli, lactic acid bacteria, streptococci). The intestinal microflora is involved in the implementation protective function macroorganism, causes production of natural immunity factors, protects in some cases the host organism from the introduction and reproduction of pathogenic microbes. The normal intestinal microflora can break down glycogen and starch to monosaccharides, bile esters and other compounds present in the chyme with the formation of a number of organic acids, ammonium salts, amines, etc. Intestinal microorganisms synthesize vitamin K, E and B vitamins (B1 B6, B12), etc.
Microorganisms ferment carbohydrates to acidic foods (lactic and acetic acid), as well as alcohol. The end products of putrefactive bacterial decomposition of proteins are toxic (indole, skatole) and biologically active amines (histamine, tyramine), hydrogen, sulfur dioxide and methane. The products of fermentation and putrefaction, as well as the resulting gases, stimulate the motor activity of the intestine, ensuring its emptying (the act of defecation).
Features of digestion in the large intestine.
There are no villi, there are only crypts. Liquid intestinal juice practically does not contain enzymes. The mucous membrane of the large intestine is updated in 1-1.5 months.
It is important normal microflora of the large intestine:
(1) fiber fermentation (short-chain fatty acids are formed, which are necessary for the nutrition of the epithelial cells of the colon itself);
(2) putrefaction of proteins (in addition to toxic substances, biologically active amines are formed);
(3) synthesis of B vitamins;
(4) inhibition of the growth of pathogenic microflora.
Occurs in the large intestine absorption of water and electrolytes, as a result of which a small amount of dense masses is formed from liquid chyme. 1-3 times a day, a powerful contraction of the colon leads to the promotion of the contents into the rectum and its removal outside (defecation).
14.11.2013
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In the small intestine, there is almost complete breakdown and absorption into the bloodstream and lymph flow of food proteins, fats, carbohydrates.
From the stomach in 12 p.k. only chyme can enter - food processed to a state of liquid or semi-liquid consistency.
Digestion in 12 p.k. carried out in a neutral or alkaline environment (on an empty stomach, pH 12 p.c. is 7.2-8.0). carried out in an acidic environment. Therefore, the contents of the stomach are acidic. Neutralization of the acidic environment of the gastric contents and the establishment of an alkaline environment is carried out in 12 p.k. due to the secrets (juices) of the pancreas, small intestine and bile entering the intestine, which have an alkaline reaction due to the bicarbonates present in them.
Chyme from the stomach in 12 p.k. comes in small portions. Irritation of the pyloric sphincter receptors by hydrochloric acid from the side of the stomach leads to its opening. Irritation of hydrochloric acid receptors of the pyloric sphincter from the 12 p. leads to its closure. As soon as the pH in the pyloric part is 12 p.k. changes to the acid side, the pyloric sphincter is reduced and the flow of chyme from the stomach at 12 p.k. stops. After the alkaline pH is restored (on average in 16 seconds), the pyloric sphincter passes the next portion of chyme from the stomach, and so on. At 12 p.k. The pH ranges from 4 to 8.
At 12 p.k. after neutralization of the acidic environment of the gastric chyme, the action of pepsin, the enzyme of gastric juice, stops. in the small intestine continues already in an alkaline environment under the action of enzymes that enter the intestinal lumen as part of the secret (juice) of the pancreas, as well as in the composition of the intestinal secret (juice) from enterocytes - cells of the small intestine. Under the action of pancreatic enzymes, cavity digestion is carried out - the splitting of food proteins, fats and carbohydrates (polymers) into intermediate substances (oligomers) in the intestinal cavity. Under the action of enterocyte enzymes, parietal (near the inner wall of the intestine) oligomers to monomers are carried out, that is, the final breakdown of food proteins, fats and carbohydrates into constituent components that enter (absorb) into the circulatory and lymphatic systems (into the bloodstream and lymph flow).
For digestion in the small intestine, it is also necessary, which is produced by liver cells (hepatocytes) and enters the small intestine through the biliary (biliary) tract (biliary tract). The main component of bile - bile acids and their salts are necessary for the emulsification of fats, without which the process of splitting fats is disturbed and slowed down. The bile ducts are divided into intra- and extrahepatic. The intrahepatic bile ducts (ducts) are a tree-like system of tubes (ducts) through which bile flows from hepatocytes. The small bile ducts are connected to a larger duct, and a collection of larger ducts forms an even larger duct. This association is completed in the right lobe of the liver - the bile duct of the right lobe of the liver, in the left - the bile duct of the left lobe of the liver. The bile duct of the right lobe of the liver is called the right bile duct. The bile duct of the left lobe of the liver is called the left bile duct. These two ducts form the common hepatic duct. At the gates of the liver, the common hepatic duct will connect with the cystic bile duct, forming the common bile duct, which goes to 12 b.c. The cystic bile duct drains bile from the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a storage reservoir for bile produced by the liver cells. The gallbladder is located on the lower surface of the liver, in the right longitudinal groove.
The secret (juice) is formed (synthesized) by acinous pancreatic cells (cells of the pancreas), which are structurally combined into acini. Acinus cells form (synthesize) pancreatic juice, which enters the excretory duct of the acinus. Neighboring acini are separated by thin layers of connective tissue, in which blood capillaries and nerve fibers of the autonomic nervous system are located. The ducts of neighboring acini merge into interacinous ducts, which, in turn, flow into larger intralobular and interlobular ducts lying in connective tissue septa. The latter, merging, form a common excretory duct, which runs from the tail of the gland to the head (structurally, the head, body and tail are isolated in the pancreas). The excretory duct (Wirsungian duct) of the pancreas, together with the common bile duct, obliquely penetrates the wall of the descending part of the 12 p. and opens inside 12 p.k. on the mucous membrane. This place is called a large (vater) papilla. In this place there is a smooth muscle sphincter of Oddi, which also functions on the principle of a nipple - it passes bile and pancreatic juice from the duct in 12 p.k. and blocks the flow of the contents of 12 p.k. into the duct. The sphincter of Oddi is a complex sphincter. It consists of the sphincter of the common bile duct, the sphincter of the pancreatic duct (pancreatic duct) and the Westphal sphincter (sphincter of the major duodenal papilla), which ensures separation of both ducts from 12 p.c. additional, non-permanent small (Santorini) duct of the pancreas. In this place is the sphincter of Helly.
Pancreatic juice is a colorless transparent liquid, which has an alkaline reaction (pH 7.5-8.8) due to the content of bicarbonates in it. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes (amylase, lipase, nuclease and others) and proenzymes (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase A and B, proelastase and prophospholipase and others). Proenzymes are the inactive form of an enzyme. Activation of pancreatic proenzymes (their transformation into an active form - an enzyme) occurs in 12 p.k.
Epithelial cells 12 b.c. - enterocytes synthesize and secrete the enzyme kinazogen (proenzyme) into the intestinal lumen. Under the action of bile acids, kinasogen is converted into enteropeptidase (enzyme). Enterokinase cleaves a hecosopeptide from trypsinogen, resulting in the formation of the enzyme trypsin. To implement this process (to convert the inactive form of the enzyme (trypsinogen) into the active form (trypsin)) an alkaline environment (pH 6.8-8.0) and the presence of calcium ions (Ca2+) are required. The subsequent conversion of trypsinogen to trypsin is carried out in 12 bp. by the action of trypsin. In addition, trypsin activates other pancreatic proenzymes. The interaction of trypsin with proenzymes leads to the formation of enzymes (chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B, elastase and phospholipases, and others). Trypsin exhibits its optimal action in a weakly alkaline environment (at pH 7.8-8).
The enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin break down food proteins into oligopeptides. Oligopeptides are an intermediate product of protein digestion. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase destroy the intrapeptide bonds of proteins (peptides), as a result of which high-molecular (containing many amino acids) proteins decompose into low-molecular (oligopeptides).
Nucleases (DNAases, RNases) break down nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) into nucleotides. Nucleotides, under the action of alkaline phosphatases and nucleotidases, are converted into nucleosides, which are absorbed from the digestive system into the blood and lymph.
Pancreatic lipase breaks down fats, mainly triglycerides, into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Lipids are also affected by phospholipase A2 and esterase.
Because dietary fats are insoluble in water, lipase only acts on the surface of the fat. The larger the contact surface of fat and lipase, the more active the splitting of fat by lipases. Increases the contact surface of fat and lipase, the process of emulsifying fat. As a result of emulsification, the fat is broken up into many small droplets ranging in size from 0.2 to 5 microns. Emulsification of fats begins in the oral cavity as a result of grinding (chewing) food and wetting it with saliva, then continues in the stomach under the influence of gastric peristalsis (mixing food in the stomach) and the final (main) emulsification of fats occurs in the small intestine under the influence of bile acids and their salts. In addition, the fatty acids formed as a result of the breakdown of triglycerides interact with the alkalis of the small intestine, which leads to the formation of soap, which additionally emulsifies fats. With a lack of bile acids and their salts, insufficient emulsification of fats occurs, and, accordingly, their breakdown and assimilation. Fats are removed with feces. In this case, the feces become greasy, mushy, white or gray in color. This condition is called steatorrhea. Bile inhibits the growth of putrefactive microflora. Therefore, with insufficient formation and entry into the intestine of bile, putrefactive dyspepsia develops. With putrefactive dyspepsia, diarrhea occurs = diarrhea (feces are dark brown, liquid or mushy with a pungent putrefactive odor, frothy (with gas bubbles). Decay products (dimethyl mercaptan, hydrogen sulfide, indole, skatole and others) worsen general well-being (weakness, loss of appetite , malaise, chilling, headache).
The activity of lipase is directly proportional to the presence of calcium ions (Ca2+), bile salts, and the colipase enzyme. Lipases usually carry out incomplete hydrolysis of triglycerides; this forms a mixture of monoglycerides (about 50%), fatty acids and glycerol (40%), di- and triglycerides (3-10%).
Glycerol and short fatty acids (containing up to 10 carbon atoms) are independently absorbed from the intestines into the blood. Fatty acids containing more than 10 carbon atoms, free cholesterol, monoacylglycerols are water insoluble (hydrophobic) and cannot independently enter the blood from the intestines. This becomes possible after they combine with bile acids to form complex compounds called micelles. The micelles are very small, about 100 nm in diameter. The core of the micelles is hydrophobic (repels water) and the shell is hydrophilic. Bile acids serve as a conductor for fatty acids from the cavity of the small intestine to enterocytes (cells of the small intestine). At the surface of enterocytes, micelles disintegrate. Fatty acids, free cholesterol, monoacylglycerols enter the enterocyte. Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins is interrelated with this process. Parasympathetic autonomic nervous system, hormones of the adrenal cortex, thyroid gland, pituitary gland, hormones 12 p.k. secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) increase absorption, the sympathetic autonomic nervous system reduces absorption. The released bile acids, reaching the large intestine, are absorbed into the blood, mainly in the ileum, and are then absorbed (removed) from the blood by liver cells (hepatocytes). In enterocytes, with the participation of intracellular enzymes from fatty acids, phospholipids, triacylglycerols (TAG, triglycerides (fats) - a compound of glycerol (glycerol) with three fatty acids), cholesterol esters (a compound of free cholesterol with a fatty acid) are formed. Further, complex compounds with protein are formed from these substances in enterocytes - lipoproteins, mainly chylomicrons (XM) and in a smaller amount - high-density lipoproteins (HDL). HDL from enterocytes enter the bloodstream. HM are large and therefore cannot get directly from the enterocyte into the circulatory system. From enterocytes, CM enters the lymph, into the lymphatic system. From the thoracic lymphatic duct, XM enters the circulatory system.
Pancreatic amylase (α-Amylase), breaks down polysaccharides (carbohydrates) to oligosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are an intermediate product of the breakdown of polysaccharides consisting of several monosaccharides interconnected by intermolecular bonds. Among the oligosaccharides formed from food polysaccharides under the action of pancreatic amylase, disaccharides consisting of two monosaccharides and trisaccharides consisting of three monosaccharides predominate. α-Amylase exhibits its optimal action in a neutral environment (at pH 6.7-7.0).
Depending on the food you eat, the pancreas produces different amounts of enzymes. For example, if you eat only fatty foods, then the pancreas will produce mainly an enzyme for digesting fats - lipase. In this case, the production of other enzymes will be significantly reduced. If there is only one bread, then the pancreas will produce enzymes that break down carbohydrates. A monotonous diet should not be abused, as a constant imbalance in the production of enzymes can lead to diseases.
Epithelial cells of the small intestine (enterocytes) secrete a secret into the intestinal lumen, which is called intestinal juice. Intestinal juice has an alkaline reaction due to the content of bicarbonates in it. The pH of the intestinal juice ranges from 7.2 to 8.6, contains enzymes, mucus, other substances, as well as aged, rejected enterocytes. In the mucous membrane of the small intestine, there is a continuous change in the layer of cells of the surface epithelium. Complete renewal of these cells in humans occurs in 1-6 days. Such intensity of formation and rejection of cells causes a large number of them in the intestinal juice (in a person, about 250 g of enterocytes are rejected per day).
Mucus synthesized by enterocytes forms a protective layer that prevents excessive mechanical and chemical effects of chyme on the intestinal mucosa.
There are more than 20 different enzymes in the intestinal juice that take part in digestion. The main part of these enzymes takes part in parietal digestion, that is, directly at the surface of the villi, microvilli of the small intestine - in the glycocalyx. Glycocalyx is a molecular sieve that passes molecules to the cells of the intestinal epithelium, depending on their size, charge and other parameters. The glycocalyx contains enzymes from the intestinal cavity and synthesized by the enterocytes themselves. In the glycalyx, the final breakdown of the intermediate products of the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates into constituent components (oligomers to monomers) takes place. The glycocalyx, microvilli, and apical membrane are collectively referred to as the striated border.
Intestinal juice carbohydrases are composed primarily of disaccharidases, which break down disaccharides (carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharide molecules) into two monosaccharide molecules. Sucrase breaks down the sucrose molecule into glucose and fructose. Maltase splits the maltose molecule, and trehalase splits trehalose into two glucose molecules. Lactase (α-galactazidase) splits the lactose molecule into a glucose and galactose molecule. Deficiency in the synthesis of one or another disaccharidase by the cells of the mucous membrane of the small intestine becomes the cause of intolerance to the corresponding disaccharide. Genetically fixed and acquired lactase, trehalase, sucrase and combined disaccharidase deficiencies are known.
Intestinal juice peptidases cleave the peptide bond between two specific amino acids. Intestinal juice peptidases complete the hydrolysis of oligopeptides, resulting in the formation of amino acids - the end products of cleavage (hydrolysis) of proteins that enter (absorb) from the small intestine into the blood and lymph.
Nucleases (DNAases, RNases) of intestinal juice break down DNA and RNA into nucleotides. Nucleotides under the action of alkaline phosphatases and nucleotidases of intestinal juice are converted into nucleosides, which are absorbed from the small intestine into the blood and lymph.
The main lipase in intestinal juice is intestinal monoglyceride lipase. It hydrolyzes monoglycerides of any hydrocarbon chain length, as well as short chain di- and triglycerides, and to a lesser extent medium-chain triglycerides and cholesterol esters.
Management of the secretion of pancreatic juice, intestinal juice, bile, motor activity (peristalsis) of the small intestine is carried out by neuro-humoral (hormonal) mechanisms. Management is carried out by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hormones that are synthesized by the cells of the gastroenteropancreatic endocrine system - part of the diffuse endocrine system.
In accordance with the functional features in the ANS, parasympathetic ANS and sympathetic ANS are distinguished. Both of these departments of the VNS carry out management.
Which exercise control, come into a state of excitement under the influence of impulses that come to them from the receptors of the oral cavity, nose, stomach, small intestine, as well as from the cerebral cortex (thoughts, talking about food, the type of food, etc.). In response to the impulses coming to them, the excited neurons send impulses along the efferent nerve fibers to the controlled cells. Around the cells, the axons of efferent neurons form numerous branches, ending in tissue synapses. When a neuron is excited, a mediator is released from the tissue synapse - a substance with the help of which the excited neuron affects the function of the cells controlled by it. The mediator of the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system is acetylcholine. The mediator of the sympathetic autonomic nervous system is norepinephrine.
Under the action of acetylcholine (parasympathetic ANS), there is an increase in the secretion of intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, bile, increased peristalsis (motor, motor function) of the small intestine, gallbladder. Efferent parasympathetic nerve fibers approach the small intestine, pancreas, liver cells, and bile ducts as part of the vagus nerve. Acetylcholine exerts its effect on cells through M-cholinergic receptors located on the surface (membranes, membranes) of these cells.
Under the action of norepinephrine (sympathetic ANS), the peristalsis of the small intestine decreases, the formation of intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, and bile decreases. Norepinephrine exerts its effect on cells through β-adrenergic receptors located on the surface (membranes, membranes) of these cells.
In the control of the motor function of the small intestine, the Auerbach plexus, the intraorgan division of the autonomic nervous system (intramural nervous system), takes part. Management is based on local peripheral reflexes. Auerbach's plexus is a dense continuous network of nerve nodes connected by nerve cords. Nerve nodes are a collection of neurons (nerve cells), and nerve cords are processes of these neurons. In accordance with the functional features of the Auerbach's plexus, it consists of neurons of the parasympathetic ANS and the sympathetic ANS. The nerve nodes and nerve cords of the Auerbach's plexus are located between the longitudinal and circular layers of the smooth muscle bundles of the intestinal wall, go in the longitudinal and circular direction and form a continuous nervous network around the intestine. The nerve cells of the Auerbach plexus innervate the longitudinal and circular bundles of smooth muscle cells of the intestine, regulating their contractions.
Two nerve plexuses of the intramural nervous system (intraorgan autonomic nervous system) also take part in the control of the secretory function of the small intestine: the subserous nerve plexus (sparrow plexus) and the submucosal nerve plexus (Meissner's plexus). Management is carried out on the basis of local peripheral reflexes. Both of these plexuses, like the Auerbach plexus, are a dense continuous network of nerve nodes interconnected by nerve cords, consisting of neurons of the parasympathetic ANS and sympathetic ANS.
The neurons of all three plexuses have synaptic connections with each other.
Motor activity of the small intestine is controlled by two autonomous sources of rhythm. The first is located at the confluence of the common bile duct into the duodenum, and the other is located in the ileum.
The motor activity of the small intestine is controlled by reflexes that excite and inhibit intestinal motility. The reflexes that excite the motility of the small intestine include: esophago-intestinal, gastrointestinal and intestinal reflexes. The reflexes that inhibit the motility of the small intestine include: gastrointestinal, rectoenteric, reflex receptor relaxation (inhibition) of the small intestine during meals.
The motor activity of the small intestine depends on the physical and chemical properties of the chyme. The high content of fiber, salts, intermediate products of hydrolysis (especially fats) in the chyme enhance the peristalsis of the small intestine.
S-cells of the mucous membrane 12 b.c. synthesize and secrete prosecretin (prohormone) into the intestinal lumen. Prosecretin is mainly converted to secretin (a hormone) by the action of hydrochloric acid in the gastric chyme. The most intensive conversion of prosecretin to secretin occurs at pH=4 and less. As the pH increases, the conversion rate decreases in direct proportion. Secretin is absorbed into the bloodstream and reaches the cells of the pancreas with the bloodstream. Under the action of secretin, pancreatic cells increase the secretion of water and bicarbonates. Secretin does not increase the secretion of enzymes and proenzymes by the pancreas. Under the action of secretin, the secretion of the alkaline component of pancreatic juice increases, which enters 12 p. The greater the acidity of gastric juice (the lower the pH of gastric juice), the more secretin is formed, the more is secreted in 12 p.k. pancreatic juice with plenty of water and bicarbonates. Bicarbonates neutralize hydrochloric acid, pH increases, secretin formation decreases, secretion of pancreatic juice with a high content of bicarbonates decreases. In addition, under the action of secretin, bile formation and secretion of the glands of the small intestine increase.
The conversion of prosecretin to secretin also occurs under the action of ethyl alcohol, fatty, bile acids, and spice components.
The largest number of S-cells is located in 12 p. and in the upper (proximal) part of the jejunum. The smallest number of S-cells is located in the most remote (lower, distal) part of the jejunum.
Secretin is a peptide consisting of 27 amino acid residues. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), glucagon-like peptide-1, glucagon, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), calcitonin, calcitonin gene-associated peptide, parathormone, growth hormone releasing factor have a chemical structure similar to secretin, and, accordingly, possibly similar action. , corticotropin releasing factor and others.
When chyme enters the small intestine from the stomach, I-cells located in the mucous membrane 12 p. and the upper (proximal) part of the jejunum begin to synthesize and secrete the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK, CCK, pancreozymin) into the blood. Under the action of CCK, the sphincter of Oddi relaxes, the gallbladder contracts and, as a result, the flow of bile increases by 12.p.k. CCK causes contraction of the pyloric sphincter and limits the flow of gastric chyme to 12 p.k., enhances the motility of the small intestine. The most powerful stimulator of the synthesis and excretion of CCK are dietary fats, proteins, alkaloids of choleretic herbs. Dietary carbohydrates do not have a stimulating effect on the synthesis and release of CCK. The gastrin-releasing peptide also belongs to the stimulators of the synthesis and release of CCK.
The synthesis and release of CCK is reduced by the action of somatostatin, a peptide hormone. Somatostatin is synthesized and released into the blood by D-cells, which are located in the stomach, intestines, among the endocrine cells of the pancreas (in the islets of Langerhans). Somatostatin is also synthesized by the cells of the hypothalamus. Under the action of somatostatin, not only the synthesis of CCK is reduced. Under the action of somatostatin, the synthesis and release of other hormones decreases: gastrin, insulin, glucagon, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, insulin-like growth factor-1, somatotropin-releasing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormones, and others.
Reduces gastric, bile and pancreatic secretion, peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract Peptide YY. Peptide YY is synthesized by L-cells, which are located in the mucosa of the large intestine and in the final part of the small intestine - in the ileum. When the chyme reaches the ileum, the fats, carbohydrates, and bile acids of the chyme act on L-cell receptors. L-cells begin to synthesize and secrete the YY peptide into the blood. As a result, the peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract slows down, gastric, bile and pancreatic secretion decreases. The phenomenon of slowing down the peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract after reaching the ileum by the chyme is called the ileal brake. YY peptide secretion is also stimulated by gastrin-releasing peptide.
D1(H)-cells, which are located mainly in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas and, to a lesser extent, in the stomach, in the colon and in the small intestine, synthesize and secrete vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) into the blood. VIP has a pronounced relaxing effect on the smooth muscle cells of the stomach, small intestine, colon, gallbladder, and also the vessels of the gastrointestinal tract. Under the influence of VIP, the blood supply to the gastrointestinal tract increases. Under the influence of VIP, the secretion of pepsinogen, intestinal enzymes, pancreatic enzymes, the content of bicarbonates in the pancreatic juice increases, and the secretion of hydrochloric acid decreases.
The secretion of the pancreas increases under the action of gastrin, serotonin, insulin. They also stimulate the secretion of pancreatic juice of bile salts. Reduce the secretion of the pancreas glucagon, somatostatin, vasopressin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), calcitonin.
The endocrine regulators of the motor (motor) function of the gastrointestinal tract include the hormone Motilin. Motilin is synthesized and secreted into the blood by enterochromaffin cells of the mucous membrane 12 b.c. and jejunum. Bile acids are a stimulant for the synthesis and release of motilin into the blood. Motilin stimulates the peristalsis of the stomach, small and large intestine 5 times stronger than the parasympathetic ANS mediator acetylcholine. Motilin, together with cholecystokinin, controls the contractile function of the gallbladder.
Endocrine regulators of the motor (motor) and secretory function of the intestine include the hormone Serotonin, which is synthesized by intestinal cells. Under the influence of this serotonin, peristalsis and secretory activity of the intestine increase. In addition, intestinal serotonin is a growth factor for some types of symbiotic intestinal microflora. At the same time, the symbiotic microflora takes part in the synthesis of intestinal serotonin by decarboxylating tryptophan, which is the source and raw material for the synthesis of serotonin. With dysbacteriosis and some other intestinal diseases, the synthesis of intestinal serotonin decreases.
From the small intestine, chyme in portions (about 15 ml) enters the large intestine. This flow is regulated by the ileocecal sphincter (Bauhin's valve). The opening of the sphincter occurs reflexively: the peristalsis of the ileum (the final part of the small intestine) increases the pressure on the sphincter from the side of the small intestine, the sphincter relaxes (opens), the chyme enters the caecum (the initial section of the large intestine). When the caecum is filled and stretched, the sphincter closes, and the chyme does not return back to the small intestine.
You can place your comments on the topic below.
Before moving on, let me repeat questions that I think are now not at all difficult to answer, given the information at hand about digestion. 1. What is the reason for the need to normalize the pH of the medium (weakly alkaline) of the large intestine? 2. What variants of the acid-base state are possible for the medium of the large intestine? 3. What is the reason for the deviation of the acid-base state of the internal environment of the large intestine from the norm? So, alas and oh, we have to admit that from all that has been said about the digestion of a healthy person, it does not at all follow the need to normalize the pH environment of his large intestine. Such a problem does not exist during the normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, this is quite obvious. The large intestine in a full state has a moderately acidic environment with a pH of 5.0-7.0, which allows representatives of the normal microflora of the large intestine to actively break down fiber, participate in the synthesis of vitamins E, K, group B (B B. ") and others biologically active substances.At the same time, the friendly intestinal microflora performs a protective function, destroying facultative and pathogenic microbes that cause decay.Thus, the normal microflora of the large intestine determines the development of natural immunity in its host.Let's consider another situation when the large intestine does not Yes, in this case, the reaction of its internal environment will be defined as weakly alkaline, due to the fact that a small amount of weakly alkaline intestinal juice is released into the lumen of the large intestine (approximately 50-60 ml per day with a pH of 8.5-9.0 But even this time there is not the slightest reason to be afraid of putrefactive and fermentation processes, because if in the large intestine there is nothing, so, in fact, there is nothing to rot. And even more so, there is no need to deal with such alkalinity, because this is the physiological norm of a healthy organism. I believe that unjustified actions to acidify the large intestine cannot bring anything but harm to a healthy person. Where, then, does the problem of alkalinity of the large intestine arise, with which it is necessary to fight, what is it based on? It seems to me that the whole point is that, unfortunately, this problem is presented as an independent one, while, despite its significance, it is only a consequence of the unhealthy functioning of the entire gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, it is necessary to look for the causes of deviations from the norm not at the level of the large intestine, but much higher - in the stomach, where a full-scale process of preparing food components for absorption is unfolding. It directly depends on the quality of food processing in the stomach - whether it will subsequently be absorbed by the body or, in an undigested form, will go to the colon for disposal. As you know, hydrochloric acid plays an important role in the process of digestion in the stomach. It stimulates the secretory activity of the glands of the stomach, promotes the transformation of pepsinogen, which is unable to act on the proteins of the pepsinogen proenzyme, into the enzyme pepsin; creates an optimal acid-base balance for the action of gastric enzymes; causes denaturation, preliminary destruction and swelling of food proteins, ensures their breakdown by enzymes; supports the antibacterial action of gastric juice, i.e., the destruction of pathogenic and putrefactive microbes. Hydrochloric acid also promotes the passage of food from the stomach to the duodenum and further participates in the regulation of the secretion of the duodenal glands, stimulating their motor activity. Gastric juice quite actively breaks down proteins or, as they say in science, has a proteolytic effect, activating enzymes in a wide pH range from 1.5-2.0 to 3.2-4.0. Under optimal acidity of the medium, pepsin has a splitting effect on proteins, breaking peptide bonds in the protein molecule formed by groups of various amino acids. "As a result of this effect, a complex protein molecule breaks down into simpler substances: peptones, peptides and proteases. Pepsin provides hydrolysis of the main protein substances that make up meat products, and especially collagen, the main component of connective tissue fibers. Under the influence of pepsin, protein breakdown begins. However, in the stomach, cleavage reaches only peptides and albumose - large fragments of a protein molecule.Further cleavage of these derivatives of a protein molecule occurs already in the small intestine under the action of enzymes of intestinal juice and pancreatic juice.In the small intestine, the amino acids formed during the final digestion of proteins dissolve in the intestinal contents and are absorbed into the blood. And it is quite natural that if the body is characterized by any parameter, there will always be people in whom it is either increased or reduced. Deviation towards increase has the prefix "hyper", and towards decrease - "hypo ". Do not constitute an exception in this regard, and patients with impaired secretory function of the stomach. At the same time, a change in the secretory function of the stomach, characterized by an increased level of hydrochloric acid with its excessive release - hypersecretion, is called hyperacid gastritis or gastritis with high acidity of gastric juice. When the opposite is true and hydrochloric acid is secreted less than normal, we are dealing with hypocidic gastritis or gastritis with low acidity of gastric juice. In the case of the complete absence of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, they speak of anacid gastritis or gastritis with zero acidity of gastric juice. The disease "gastritis" itself is defined as inflammation of the gastric mucosa, in a chronic form accompanied by a restructuring of its structure and progressive atrophy, a violation of the secretory, motor and endocrine (absorption) functions of the stomach. I must say that gastritis is much more common than we think. According to statistics, in one form or another, gastritis is detected during a gastroenterological examination, i.e. an examination of the gastrointestinal tract, in almost every second patient. In the case of hypocidic gastritis, caused by a decrease in the acid-forming function of the stomach and, consequently, the activity of gastric juice and a decrease in its acidity, the food slurry coming from the stomach to the small intestine will no longer be as acidic as with normal acid formation. And further along the entire length of the intestine, as shown in the chapter "Fundamentals of the digestive process", only its consistent alkalization is possible. If, during normal acid formation, the acidity level of the contents of the large intestine decreases to slightly acidic and even to a neutral reaction pH 5-7, then in the case of low acidity of gastric juice - in the large intestine, the reaction of the contents will already be either neutral or slightly alkaline, with a pH of 7-8 . If a food slurry that is slightly acidified in the stomach and does not contain animal proteins takes on an alkaline reaction in the large intestine, then if it contains animal protein, which is a pronounced alkaline product, the contents of the large intestine become alkaline seriously and for a long time. Why for a long time? Because due to the alkaline reaction of the internal environment of the large intestine, its peristalsis is sharply weakened. Let's remember what kind of environment is in the empty large intestine? - Alkaline. The converse is also true: if the environment of the large intestine is alkaline, then the large intestine is empty. And if it is empty, a healthy body will not waste energy on peristaltic work, and the large intestine is resting. Rest, which is completely natural for a healthy intestine, ends with a change in the chemical reaction of its internal environment to acidic, which in the chemical language of our body means that the large intestine is full, it's time to work, it's time to compact, dehydrate and move the formed feces closer to the exit. But when the large intestine is filled with alkaline contents, the large intestine does not receive a chemical signal to end the rest and start working. And what's more, the body still thinks the colon is empty, and in the meantime, the colon keeps filling up and filling up. And this is serious, as the consequences can be the most severe. The notorious constipation, perhaps, will be the most harmless of them. In the case of the complete absence of free hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice, as occurs with anacid gastritis, the enzyme pepsin is not produced at all in the stomach. The process of digestion of animal proteins under such conditions is even theoretically impossible. And then almost all of the eaten animal protein in an undigested form ends up in the large intestine, where the reaction of the feces will be strongly alkaline. It becomes quite obvious that the processes of decay simply cannot be avoided. This gloomy forecast is exacerbated by another sad condition. If at the very beginning of the gastrointestinal tract, due to the absence of hydrochloric acid, there was no antibacterial action of gastric juice, then pathogenic and putrefactive microbes brought with food, not destroyed by gastric juice, entering the large intestine on well-alkalined "soil", receive the most favorable conditions for life and begin to multiply rapidly. At the same time, having a pronounced antagonistic activity in relation to representatives of the normal microflora of the large intestine, pathogenic microbes suppress their vital activity, which leads to disruption of the normal process of digestion in the large intestine with all the ensuing consequences. Suffice it to say that the end products of the putrefactive bacterial decomposition of proteins are such toxic and biologically active substances as amines, hydrogen sulfide, methane, which have a toxic effect on the entire human body. The consequence of this abnormal situation is constipation, colitis, enterocolitis, etc. Constipation, in turn, gives rise to hemorrhoids, and hemorrhoids provoke constipation. Given the putrefactive properties of excrement, it is very possible that various kinds of tumors will appear in the future, up to malignant ones. In order to suppress putrefactive processes under the circumstances, to restore the normal microflora and the motor function of the large intestine, of course, it is necessary to fight for the normalization of the pH of its internal environment. And in this case, the cleansing and acidification of the large intestine according to the method of N. Walker with enemas with the addition of lemon juice is perceived by me as a reasonable solution. But at the same time, all this seems to be more of a cosmetic than a radical means of combating the alkalinity of the large intestine, since in itself it can in no way eliminate the root causes of such a plight in our body.
All causes of body pollution also apply to the large intestine. Let's take a closer look at the causes of his problems. It is known that on the way to the large intestine, food must be processed in the stomach, in the duodenum and in the small intestine, irrigated with bile from the liver and gallbladder and pancreatic juice. Any problems in these organs will instantly affect the large intestine. For example, bile is involved not only in the digestion of fats, but also stimulates peristalsis of the large intestine. Due to the stagnant process in the gallbladder, less bile comes from there. Consequently, as a result of a decrease in peristalsis in the large intestine, constipation will begin, i.e. food residues will stagnate in the intestines. Insufficient digestion of fats will also lead to the fact that these fats enter the large intestine and change the acid-base balance in it, which will negatively affect the vital activity of the microflora. Maintaining a relatively constant pH in all parts of the gastrointestinal tract is of great importance for all digestion and for the large intestine in particular. Thus, the lack of acid in the stomach will cause insufficient processing of the bolus of food, which will affect further digestion in other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. As a result, an alkaline reaction is created in the large intestine instead of a slightly acidic one.
It is known that a slightly acidic environment is most favorable for the vital activity of bacteria and, in addition, such an environment contributes to the peristaltic movements of the intestine, which are necessary for removing feces to the outside. In the presence of an alkaline environment, peristalsis is significantly reduced, which makes it difficult to remove feces and leads to stagnant processes in the large intestine. Constipation, stagnant processes are decay and absorption of toxic substances into the blood. In addition, due to the weak acidity in the stomach, putrefactive microbes are not completely destroyed, which then enter the large intestine.
Excess acid in the stomach leads to spasms of the mucous membranes throughout the gastrointestinal tract and increased acidity in the large intestine. Increased acidity causes increased peristaltic movements of the large intestine and, as a result, frequent and profuse diarrhea, which dehydrates the body. Frequent diarrhea also exposes the intestinal mucosa, leading to chemical burns and spasm. Repetitive spasms over time can cause constipation with all the ensuing consequences. Thus, often problems with the large intestine begin with the stomach, or, more precisely, with its acidity. The main cause of problems is the disruption of the vital activity of beneficial bacteria, and they are strongly influenced by the pH of the environment.
Improper nutrition (mainly boiled and starchy food, devoid of minerals, vitamins), and most importantly, the lack of fiber also adversely affect the microflora. Violation of the activity of microflora is called dysbacteriosis. Dysbacteriosis creates stagnant processes in the large intestine, due to which fecal masses collect in folds-pockets (diverticula). These masses then, when dehydrated, turn into stones that lie in the intestines for years and constantly send toxins into the blood. Prolonged contact with fecal stones leads to inflammation of the intestinal walls with the development of colitis. As a result of clamping of blood vessels by feces and stagnation of blood, hemorrhoids occur, from overstrain of the walls of the rectum during defecation - cracks in the anus. Stones and stagnant processes thin the walls of the large intestine, holes may appear through which toxins pass to other organs. There are such skin diseases accompanied by large pimples that last for years, and no medicines help. Only cleansing and restoring the normal functions of the large intestine can cure this disease. The clogging of the large intestine with fecal stones blocks some of the reflexogenic zones and disrupts the stimulating role of the intestine. For example, finding a stone in the ovary area can affect them and cause inflammation. And the last. Problems with the microflora (because it synthesizes important B vitamins) greatly affect the immune system, leading to various serious diseases, including cancer. The recent increase in influenza epidemics also indicates a violation of the immune system in the population, and hence dysbacteriosis. As you can see, dear reader, there is something to fight for!
Violation of the large intestine is confirmed by the following symptoms:
- constipation, bad breath, from the body;
- various skin problems, chronic runny nose, problems with teeth;
- papillomas under the armpits and on the neck signal the presence of polyps in the colon; after the disappearance of the polyps, they fall off by themselves;
- black plaque on the teeth indicates the presence of mold in the intestines;
- constant accumulation of mucus in the throat and nose, coughing;
- haemorrhoids;
- frequent colds;
- accumulation of gases;
- frequent fatigue.
Cleansing procedure
Before you start cleansing using the ideomotor method, you need to do a rough cleansing, especially for those people who have obvious problems. Nothing better than a series of enemas. Although I have to express my point of view here. I am against the frequent use of enemas, firstly, because the body cannot be accustomed to such influences, despite the fact that they are useful. Any artificial procedures weaken the natural functions of the body. In this case, with frequent use of enemas, natural peristalsis deteriorates and this can again lead to constipation. Secondly, intervention in the internal environment can change the acid-base balance, and here the solution with which the washing is done is especially affected. Since it is necessary to give enemas in order to avoid unpleasant consequences, it is necessary to make the correct solution for enemas. The intestines will not become lazy, since the ideomotor movements themselves, which we will do after enemas, will quickly restore its motor abilities. An athlete, after a long break, restores muscles by training them, and we, by making intestinal pulsations, train his muscles.
Rough cleaning
2 liters of water;
20-30 grams of salt;
100-150 milliliters of lemon juice.
The solution should suck out dirt from the walls of the large intestine. He can do this according to the law of osmosis, i.e., a liquid with a lower salt concentration passes into liquids with a higher concentration. Blood plasma has a salt concentration of 0.9%, so the walls of the large intestine absorb water and all solutions with a lower concentration. But they do not absorb, for example, salty sea water. Therefore, being in the sea without fresh water, you can die of thirst.
To clean the walls of the intestine, you need to take a solution that would not be absorbed there, but, on the contrary, sucked out water. The concentration of the solution should be slightly higher than that of blood plasma - 1% or 1.5%. More can not be taken, since a large excess of salt will make the intestinal environment alkaline, which means the suppression of microflora. The alkalinity of the solution is compensated by lemon juice. Such a solution, on the one hand, will suck out dirt from the walls of the large intestine, and on the other hand, will not disturb the internal environment, or pH.
So, we do an enema for 2 weeks every other day, it will turn out 6-7 times. This is enough for rough cleaning. The best time for enemas is to choose in the morning, between 7-9 o'clock in the morning. But you can also in the evening, before going to bed. How to give an enema?
Prepare the indicated solution (preferably warm), pour it into Esmarch's mug and hang the mug on the wall. Soak the tip in oil or Vaseline, lubricate the anus in the same way. Insert the tip into the anus about 7-10 centimeters, being in a position on the elbows and knees. First, let in all the water, then you need to lie on your left side and try to hold the water for 5-7 minutes, then let it out. With a very contaminated intestine, it will be difficult to let in all 2 liters of solution. In this case, you can make a solution for the first week in the following proportions:
1 liter of water;
10-15 grams of salt;
50-75 milliliters of lemon juice.
I do not recommend enemas for people with severely increased acidity of gastric juice and cracks in the anus. But this applies only to enemas, everything else is possible and necessary.
To make the cleaning go better, I recommend the following additional activities. Every morning, on an empty stomach, drink 1 glass of juice, consisting of 3/4 carrots and 1/4 beets. You have to make your own juice. This mixture gives a wonderful cleansing effect. Then eat 2 apples and eat nothing else until lunch. The rest of the food should be normal, but with a minimum consumption of meat and an increase in the number of salads, especially with a predominance of cabbage. Juices and apples in the morning and meals with a minimum of meat are desirable to continue for 1 month. By the way, about food. I am not a supporter of vegetarianism, but a supporter of a varied diet with a minimum consumption of meat. The reason is that some essential amino acids are found only in meat. In addition, vitamin A is mainly found in animal foods, and we really need it, in particular, to protect against cancer. There is little of it in plant foods.
Simultaneously with the start of all cleansing, do abdominal extrusion in the morning according to the method described above. Pushing should be introduced into daily life as abdominal gymnastics. Then set aside 30 minutes for an ideomotor cleansing and do it every day for two weeks.
Acidity(lat. aciditas) is a characteristic of the activity of hydrogen ions in solutions and liquids.
In medicine, the acidity of biological fluids (blood, urine, gastric juice, and others) is a diagnostically important parameter of the patient's health. In gastroenterology, for the correct diagnosis of a number of diseases, for example, the esophagus and stomach, a single or even average acidity value is not significant. Most often, it is important to understand the dynamics of changes in acidity during the day (night acidity often differs from daytime acidity) in several areas of the body. Sometimes it is important to know the change in acidity as a reaction to certain irritants and stimulants.
pH value
In solutions, inorganic substances: salts, acids and alkalis are separated into their constituent ions. In this case, hydrogen ions H + are carriers of acidic properties, and ions OH − are carriers of alkaline properties. In highly dilute solutions, acidic and alkaline properties depend on the concentrations of H + and OH − ions. In ordinary solutions, acidic and alkaline properties depend on the activities of ions a H and a OH, that is, from the same concentrations, but adjusted for the activity coefficient γ, which is determined experimentally. For aqueous solutions, the equilibrium equation applies: a H × a OH \u003d K w, where K w is a constant, the ionic product of water (K w \u003d 10 - 14 at a water temperature of 22 ° C). It follows from this equation that the activity of hydrogen ions H + and the activity of OH ions are interconnected. Danish biochemist S.P.L. Sorensen in 1909 proposed a hydrogen show pH, equal by definition to the decimal logarithm of the activity of hydrogen ions, taken with a minus (Rapoport S.I. et al.):
pH \u003d - lg (a H).
Based on the fact that in a neutral medium a H \u003d a OH and from the fulfillment of the equality for pure water at 22 ° C: a H × a OH \u003d K w \u003d 10 - 14, we obtain that the acidity of pure water at 22 ° C (then there is neutral acidity) = 7 units. pH.
Solutions and liquids with respect to their acidity are considered:
- neutral at pH = 7
- acidic at pH< 7
- alkaline at pH > 7
Some misconceptions
If one of the patients says that he has “zero acidity”, then this is nothing more than a turn of phrase, meaning, most likely, that he has a neutral acidity value (pH = 7). In the human body, the value of the acidity index cannot be less than 0.86 pH. It is also a common misconception that acidity values can only be in the range of 0 to 14 pH. In technology, the acidity indicator is both negative and more than 20.When talking about the acidity of an organ, it is important to understand that acidity can often differ significantly in different parts of the organ. The acidity of the contents in the lumen of the organ and the acidity on the surface of the mucous membrane of the organ is also often not the same. For the mucous membrane of the body of the stomach, it is characteristic that the acidity on the surface of the mucus facing the lumen of the stomach is pH 1.2–1.5, and on the side of the mucus facing the epithelium it is neutral (7.0 pH).
pH value for some foods and water
The table below shows the acidity values of some common foods and pure water at different temperatures:| Product | Acidity, units pH |
| Lemon juice | 2,1 |
| Wine | 3,5 |
| Tomato juice | 4,1 |
| Orange juice | 4,2 |
| Black coffee | 5,0 |
| Pure water at 100°C |
6,13 |
| Pure water at 50°C |
6,63 |
| Fresh milk | 6,68 |
| Pure water at 22°C |
7,0 |
| Pure water at 0°C | 7,48 |
Acidity and Digestive Enzymes
Many processes in the body are impossible without the participation of special proteins - enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions in the body without undergoing chemical transformations. The digestive process is not possible without the participation of a variety of digestive enzymes that break down various organic food molecules and act only in a narrow range of acidity (its own for each enzyme). The most important proteolytic enzymes (digesting food proteins) of gastric juice: pepsin, gastrixin and chymosin (rennin) are produced in an inactive form - in the form of proenzymes and are later activated by hydrochloric acid of gastric juice. Pepsin is most active in a strongly acidic environment, with a pH of 1 to 2, gastrixin has a maximum activity at pH 3.0–3.5, chymosin, which breaks down milk proteins to insoluble casein protein, has a maximum activity at pH 3.0–3.5 .Proteolytic enzymes secreted by the pancreas and "acting" in the duodenum: trypsin, which has an optimum action in a slightly alkaline environment, at pH 7.8–8.0, chymotrypsin, which is close in functionality to it, is most active in an environment with acidity up to 8.2. The maximum activity of carboxypeptidases A and B is 7.5 pH. Close values of the maximum and other enzymes that perform digestive functions in the slightly alkaline environment of the intestine.
Reduced or increased acidity in relation to the norm in the stomach or duodenum, thus, leads to a significant decrease in the activity of certain enzymes or even their exclusion from the digestive process, and, as a result, to digestive problems.
Acidity of saliva and oral cavity
The acidity of saliva depends on the rate of salivation. Typically, the acidity of mixed human saliva is 6.8–7.4 pH, but at a high rate of salivation it reaches 7.8 pH. The acidity of the saliva of the parotid glands is 5.81 pH, the submandibular glands - 6.39 pH.In children, the average acidity of mixed saliva is 7.32 pH, in adults - 6.40 pH (Rimarchuk G.V. and others).
The acidity of plaque depends on the condition of the hard tissues of the teeth. Being neutral in healthy teeth, it shifts to the acid side, depending on the degree of development of caries and the age of adolescents. In 12-year-old adolescents with the initial stage of caries (pre-caries), the acidity of plaque is 6.96 ± 0.1 pH, in 12–13-year-old adolescents with moderate caries, the acidity of plaque is from 6.63 to 6.74 pH, in 16 -year-old adolescents with superficial and medium caries, the acidity of plaque is, respectively, 6.43 ± 0.1 pH and 6.32 ± 0.1 pH (Krivonogova L.B.).
Acidity of the secretion of the pharynx and larynx
The acidity of the secretion of the pharynx and larynx in healthy people and patients with chronic laryngitis and pharyngolaryngeal reflux is different (A.V. Lunev):|
Groups of surveyed |
pH measuring point |
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Pharynx, |
Larynx, |
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healthy faces |
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| Patients with chronic laryngitis without GERD |
The figure above shows a graph of acidity in the esophagus of a healthy person, obtained using intragastric pH-metry (Rapoport S.I.). On the graph, gastroesophageal refluxes are clearly observed - a sharp decrease in acidity to 2–3 pH, which in this case is physiological. Acidity in the stomach. High and low acidity The maximum observed acidity in the stomach is 0.86 pH, which corresponds to an acid production of 160 mmol/L. The minimum acidity in the stomach is 8.3 pH, which corresponds to the acidity of a saturated solution of HCO 3 - ions. Normal acidity in the lumen of the body of the stomach on an empty stomach is 1.5-2.0 pH. The acidity on the surface of the epithelial layer facing the lumen of the stomach is 1.5–2.0 pH. Acidity in the depth of the epithelial layer of the stomach is about 7.0 pH. Normal acidity in the antrum of the stomach is 1.3–7.4 pH. The cause of many diseases of the digestive tract is an imbalance in the processes of acid production and acid neutralization. Prolonged hypersecretion of hydrochloric acid or insufficiency of acid neutralization, and, as a result, increased acidity in the stomach and / or duodenum, causes the so-called acid-dependent diseases. Currently, these include: peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), erosive and ulcerative lesions of the stomach and duodenum while taking aspirin or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, gastritis and gastroduodenitis with high acidity and others. Decreased acidity is observed with anacid or hypoacid gastritis or gastroduodenitis, as well as with stomach cancer. Gastritis (gastroduodenitis) is called anacid or gastritis (gastroduodenitis) with low acidity, if the acidity in the body of the stomach is approximately 5 units or more. pH. The cause of low acidity is often the atrophy of parietal cells in the mucous membrane or a violation in their functions. Above is a graph of acidity (daily pH-gram) of the body of the stomach of a healthy person (dashed line) and a patient with a duodenal ulcer (solid line). The moments of eating are marked with arrows labeled "Food". The graph shows the acid-neutralizing effect of food, as well as the increased acidity of the stomach with a duodenal ulcer (Yakovenko A.V.). acidity in the intestinesNormal acidity in the duodenal bulb is 5.6–7.9 pH. The acidity in the jejunum and ileum is neutral or slightly alkaline and ranges from 7 to 8 pH. The acidity of the juice of the small intestine is 7.2–7.5 pH. With increased secretion, it reaches 8.6 pH. The acidity of the secretion of the duodenal glands - from pH 7 to 8 pH.
acidity of fecesThe acidity of the feces of a healthy person eating a mixed diet is determined by the vital activity of the microflora of the large intestine and is equal to 6.8–7.6 pH. The acidity of feces is considered normal in the range from 6.0 to 8.0 pH. The acidity of meconium (original feces of newborns) is about 6 pH. Deviations from the norm in the acidity of feces:
Blood acidityThe acidity of human arterial blood plasma ranges from 7.37 to 7.43 pH, averaging 7.4 pH. Acid-base balance in human blood is one of the most stable parameters, maintaining acidic and alkaline components in a certain balance within very narrow limits. Even a slight shift from these limits can lead to severe pathology. When shifted to the acid side, a condition called acidosis occurs, and to the alkaline side - alkalosis. A change in blood acidity above 7.8 pH or below 6.8 pH is incompatible with life.The acidity of venous blood is 7.32–7.42 pH. The acidity of erythrocytes is 7.28–7.29 pH. Urine acidityIn a healthy person with a normal drinking regimen and a balanced diet, the acidity of urine is in the range from 5.0 to 6.0 pH, but can range from 4.5 to 8.0 pH. The acidity of the urine of a newborn under the age of one month is normal - from 5.0 to 7.0 pH.The acidity of urine increases if meat food rich in proteins predominates in the human diet. Hard physical work increases the acidity of urine. A dairy-vegetarian diet causes urine to become slightly alkaline. An increase in the acidity of urine is noted with increased acidity of the stomach. Reduced acidity of gastric juice does not affect the acidity of urine. A change in the acidity of urine most often corresponds to a change. The acidity of urine changes with many diseases or conditions of the body, so the determination of urine acidity is an important diagnostic factor. Vaginal acidityThe normal acidity of a woman's vagina ranges from 3.8 to 4.4 pH and averages between 4.0 and 4.2 pH. Vaginal acidity in various diseases:
Publications for health care professionals addressing the issue of acidity in the female genital organs
Sperm acidityThe normal level of semen acidity is between 7.2 and 8.0 pH. Deviations from these values are not in themselves considered pathological. At the same time, in combination with other deviations, it may indicate the presence of a disease. An increase in the pH level of sperm occurs during an infectious process. A sharply alkaline reaction of sperm (acidity of about 9.0–10.0 pH) indicates a pathology of the prostate gland. With blockage of the excretory ducts of both seminal vesicles, an acid reaction of sperm is noted (acidity 6.0-6.8 pH). The fertilizing ability of such sperm is reduced. In an acidic environment, spermatozoa lose their mobility and die. If the acidity of the seminal fluid becomes less than 6.0 pH, the spermatozoa completely lose their mobility and die.Skin acidityThe surface of the skin is covered with a lipid acid mantle or Marchionini's mantle, consisting of a mixture of sebum and sweat, to which organic acids are added - lactic, citric and others, formed as a result of biochemical processes occurring in the epidermis. The acid water-lipid mantle of the skin is the first barrier of defense against microorganisms. In most people, the normal acidity of the mantle is 3.5–6.7 pH. The bactericidal property of the skin, which gives it the ability to resist microbial invasion, is due to the acid reaction of keratin, the peculiar chemical composition of sebum and sweat, and the presence of a protective water-lipid mantle with a high concentration of hydrogen ions on its surface. The low molecular weight fatty acids included in its composition, primarily glycophospholipids and free fatty acids, have a bacteriostatic effect that is selective for pathogenic microorganisms. The surface of the skin is inhabited by normal symbiotic microflora, capable of existing in an acidic environment: Staphylococcus epidermidis , Staphylococcus aureus , Propionibacterium acnes other. Some of these bacteria produce lactic and other acids themselves, contributing to the formation of the skin's acid mantle.The upper layer of the epidermis (keratin scales) has an acidity with a pH value of 5.0 to 6.0. In some skin diseases, the acidity value changes. For example, with fungal diseases, the pH rises to 6, with eczema up to 6.5, with acne up to 7. Acidity of other human biological fluidsThe acidity of fluids inside the human body normally coincides with the acidity of the blood and ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 pH. The acidity of some other human biological fluids is normally shown in the table:In the photo on the right: buffer solutions with pH=1.2 and pH=9.18 for calibration | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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