The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 - on this day Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River, unleashing wars between the two crowns of France and Russia. This war lasted until December 14, 1812, ending with the complete and unconditional victory of the Russian and allied forces. This is a glorious page of Russian history, which we will consider with reference to the official history textbooks of Russia and France, as well as to the books of bibliographers Napoleon, Alexander 1 and Kutuzov, who describe in great detail the events taking place at that moment.

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Beginning of the war

Causes of the War of 1812

The causes of the Patriotic War of 1812, like all other wars in the history of mankind, must be considered in two aspects - the causes on the part of France and the causes on the part of Russia.

Reasons from France

In just a few years, Napoleon radically changed his own ideas about Russia. If, upon coming to power, he wrote that Russia was his only ally, then by 1812 Russia had become a threat to France (consider the emperor) a threat. In many ways, this was provoked by Alexander 1 himself. So, this is why France attacked Russia in June 1812:

1. Violation of the Tilsit agreements: easing of the continental blockade. As you know, the main enemy of France at that time was England, against which the blockade was organized. Russia also participated in this, but in 1810 the government passed a law allowing trade with England through intermediaries. This effectively rendered the entire blockade ineffective, which completely undermined France's plans.
2. Refusals in dynastic marriage. Napoleon sought to marry into the Russian imperial court in order to become “God’s anointed.” However, in 1808 he was denied marriage to Princess Catherine. In 1810 he was denied marriage to Princess Anna. As a result, in 1811 the French emperor married an Austrian princess.
3. Transfer of Russian troops to the border with Poland in 1811. In the first half of 1811, Alexander 1 ordered the transfer of 3 divisions to the Polish borders, fearing an uprising of Poland, which could spread to Russian lands. This step was regarded by Napoleon as aggression and preparation for war for Polish territories, which by that time were already subordinate to France.

Soldiers! A new, second Polish war begins! The first ended in Tilsit. There, Russia promised to be an eternal ally for France in the war with England, but broke its promise. The Russian emperor does not want to give explanations for his actions until the French eagles cross the Rhine. Do they really think that we have become different? Are we really not the winners of Austerlitz? Russia presented France with a choice - shame or war. The choice is obvious! Let's go ahead, let's cross the Neman! The second Polish howl will be glorious for French arms. She will bring a messenger to the destructive influence of Russia on European affairs.

Thus began a war of conquest for France.

Reasons from Russia

Russia also had compelling reasons for participating in the war, which turned out to be a liberation war for the state. The main reasons include the following:

1. Large losses for all segments of the population from the break in trade with England. The opinions of historians on this point differ, since it is believed that the blockade did not affect the state as a whole, but exclusively its elite, who, as a result of the lack of opportunity to trade with England, lost money.
2. France's intention to recreate the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw and sought to recreate the ancient state in its true size. Perhaps this was only in the event of the seizure of its western lands from Russia.
3. Napoleon's violation of the Peace of Tilsit. One of the main criteria for signing this agreement was that Prussia should be cleared of French troops, but this was never done, although Alexander 1 constantly reminded about this.

For a long time, France has been trying to encroach on Russia's independence. We always tried to be meek, hoping to deflect her attempts to seize us. With all our desire to maintain peace, we are forced to gather troops to defend our Motherland. There are no possibilities for a peaceful resolution of the conflict with France, which means there is only one thing left - to defend the truth, to defend Russia from invaders. I don't need to remind commanders and soldiers about courage, it's in our hearts. The blood of the victors, the blood of the Slavs, flows in our veins. Soldiers! You defend the country, defend the religion, defend the fatherland. I'm with you. God is with us.

Balance of forces and means at the beginning of the war

Napoleon's crossing of the Neman occurred on June 12, with 450 thousand people at his disposal. Around the end of the month, another 200 thousand people joined him. If we take into account that by that time there were no large losses on both sides, then the total number of the French army at the start of hostilities in 1812 was 650 thousand soldiers. It is impossible to say that the French made up 100% of the army, since the combined army of almost all European countries fought on the side of France (France, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Italy, Prussia, Spain, Holland). However, it was the French who formed the basis of the army. These were proven soldiers who had won many victories with their emperor.

Russia after mobilization had 590 thousand soldiers. Initially, the army numbered 227 thousand people, and they were divided on three fronts:

• Northern - First Army. Commander - Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Toli. Number of people: 120 thousand people. They were located in the north of Lithuania and covered St. Petersburg.
• Central - Second Army. Commander - Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration. Number of people: 49 thousand people. They were located in the south of Lithuania, covering Moscow.
• Southern - Third Army. Commander - Alexander Petrovich Tormasov. Number of people: 58 thousand people. They were located in Volyn, covering the attack on Kyiv.

Also in Russia, partisan detachments were active, the number of which reached 400 thousand people.

The first stage of the war - The offensive of Napoleon's troops (June-September)

At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 12, 1812, the Patriotic War with Napoleonic France began for Russia. Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman and headed inland. The main direction of the attack was supposed to be on Moscow. The commander himself said that “if I capture Kyiv, I will lift the Russians by the feet, if I capture St. Petersburg, I will take them by the throat, if I take Moscow, I will strike the heart of Russia.”

The French army, commanded by brilliant commanders, was looking for a general battle, and the fact that Alexander 1 divided the army into 3 fronts was very beneficial to the aggressors. However, at the initial stage, Barclay de Toly played a decisive role, who gave the order not to engage in battle with the enemy and to retreat deeper into the country. This was necessary to combine forces, as well as to strengthen reserves. Retreating, the Russians destroyed everything - they killed livestock, poisoned water, burned fields. In the literal sense of the word, the French moved forward through the ashes. Later, Napoleon complained that the Russian people were carrying out a vile war and did not behave according to the rules.

Northern direction

Napoleon sent 32 thousand people led by General MacDonald to St. Petersburg. The first city on this route was Riga. According to the French plan, MacDonald was supposed to capture the city. Connect with General Oudinot (he had 28 thousand people at his disposal) and move on.

The defense of Riga was commanded by General Essen with 18 thousand soldiers. He burned everything around the city, and the city itself was very well fortified. By this time, MacDonald had captured Dinaburg (the Russians abandoned the city at the beginning of the war) and did not take further active action. He understood the absurdity of the assault on Riga and waited for the arrival of artillery.

General Oudinot occupied Polotsk and from there tried to separate Wittenstein's corps from the army of Barclay de Toly. However, on July 18, Wittenstein launched an unexpected blow on Oudinot, who was saved from defeat only by Saint-Cyr's corps, which arrived in time. As a result, balance came and no more active offensive operations were carried out in the northern direction.

South direction

General Ranier with an army of 22 thousand people was supposed to act in the young direction, blocking the army of General Tormasov, preventing it from connecting with the rest of the Russian army.

On July 27, Tormasov surrounded the city of Kobrin, where Ranier’s main forces gathered. The French suffered a terrible defeat - in 1 day 5 thousand people were killed in the battle, which forced the French to retreat. Napoleon realized that the southern direction in the Patriotic War of 1812 was in danger of failure. Therefore, he transferred General Schwarzenberg’s troops there, numbering 30 thousand people. As a result of this, on August 12, Tormasov was forced to retreat to Lutsk and take up defense there. Subsequently, the French did not undertake active offensive actions in the southern direction. The main events took place in the Moscow direction.

The course of events of the offensive company

On June 26, the army of General Bagration advanced from Vitebsk, whose task Alexander 1 set to engage in battle with the main forces of the enemy in order to wear them down. Everyone realized the absurdity of this idea, but only by July 17 was it possible to finally dissuade the emperor from this idea. The troops began to retreat to Smolensk.

On July 6, the large number of Napoleon's troops became clear. To prevent the Patriotic War from dragging on for a long time, Alexander 1 signed a decree on the creation of a militia. Literally all residents of the country are enrolled in it - there are about 400 thousand volunteers in total.

On July 22, the armies of Bagration and Barclay de Tolly united near Smolensk. The command of the united army was taken over by Barclay de Tolly, who had 130 thousand soldiers at his disposal, while the front line of the French army numbered 150 thousand soldiers.

On July 25, a military council was held in Smolensk, at which the issue of accepting the battle was discussed in order to launch a counteroffensive and defeat Napoleon with one blow. But Barclay spoke out against this idea, realizing that an open battle with an enemy, a brilliant strategist and tactician, could lead to a monumental failure. As a result, the offensive idea was not implemented. It was decided to retreat further - to Moscow.

On July 26, the retreat of the troops began, which General Neverovsky was supposed to cover by occupying the village of Krasnoye, thereby closing the bypass of Smolensk for Napoleon.

On August 2, Murat with a cavalry corps tried to break through the defenses of Neverovsky, but to no avail. In total, more than 40 attacks were launched with the help of cavalry, but it was not possible to achieve the desired result.

August 5 is one of the important dates in the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon began the assault on Smolensk, capturing the suburbs by evening. However, at night he was driven out of the city, and the Russian army continued its massive retreat from the city. This caused a storm of discontent among the soldiers. They believed that if they managed to drive the French out of Smolensk, then it was necessary to destroy it there. They accused Barclay of cowardice, but the general implemented only one plan - to wear down the enemy and take a decisive battle when the balance of forces was on the side of Russia. By this time, the French had all the advantage.

On August 17, Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov arrived in the army and took command. This candidacy did not raise any questions, since Kutuzov (a student of Suvorov) was highly respected and was considered the best Russian commander after the death of Suvorov. Having arrived in the army, the new commander-in-chief wrote that he had not yet decided what to do next: “The question has not yet been resolved - either lose the army, or give up Moscow.”

On August 26, the Battle of Borodino took place. Its outcome still raises many questions and disputes, but there were no losers then. Each commander solved his own problems: Napoleon opened his way to Moscow (the heart of Russia, as the Emperor of France himself wrote), and Kutuzov was able to inflict heavy damage on the enemy, thereby making the initial turning point in the battle of 1812.

September 1 is a significant day, which is described in all history textbooks. A military council was held in Fili, near Moscow. Kutuzov gathered his generals to decide what to do next. There were only two options: retreat and surrender Moscow, or organize a second general battle after Borodino. Most of the generals, on the wave of success, demanded a battle in order to defeat Napoleon as soon as possible. Kutuzov himself and Barclay de Tolly opposed this development of events. The military council in Fili ended with Kutuzov’s phrase “As long as there is an army, there is hope. If we lose the army near Moscow, we will lose not only the ancient capital, but also all of Russia.”

September 2 - following the results of the military council of generals, which took place in Fili, it was decided that it was necessary to leave the ancient capital. The Russian army retreated, and Moscow itself, before the arrival of Napoleon, according to many sources, was subjected to terrible looting. However, this is not even the main thing. Retreating, the Russian army set the city on fire. Wooden Moscow burned down almost three-quarters. The most important thing is that literally all food warehouses were destroyed. The reasons for the Moscow fire lie in the fact that the French would not get anything that could be used by the enemies for food, movement or in other aspects. As a result, the aggressor troops found themselves in a very precarious position.

The second stage of the war - Napoleon's retreat (October - December)

Having occupied Moscow, Napoleon considered the mission completed. The commander's bibliographers later wrote that he was faithful - the loss of the historical center of Rus' would break the victorious spirit, and the country's leaders had to come to him asking for peace. But this did not happen. Kutuzov settled down with his army 80 kilometers from Moscow near Tarutin and waited until the enemy army, deprived of normal supplies, weakened and itself made a radical change in the Patriotic War. Without waiting for a peace offer from Russia, the French emperor himself took the initiative.

Napoleon's quest for peace

According to Napoleon's original plan, the capture of Moscow was to be decisive. Here it was possible to establish a convenient bridgehead, including for a campaign against St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. However, the delay in moving around Russia and the heroism of the people, who fought for literally every piece of land, practically thwarted this plan. After all, a trip to the north of Russia in winter for the French army with irregular food supplies actually amounted to death. This became clearly clear towards the end of September, when it began to get colder. Subsequently, Napoleon wrote in his autobiography that his biggest mistake was the campaign against Moscow and the month spent there.

Realizing the gravity of his situation, the French emperor and commander decided to end the Patriotic War of Russia by signing a peace treaty with it. Three such attempts were made:

1. September 18. A message was sent through General Tutolmin to Alexander 1, which stated that Napoleon revered the Russian emperor and offered him peace. All he demands from Russia is to give up the territory of Lithuania and return to the continental blockade again.
2. September 20. Alexander 1 received a second letter from Napoleon with a peace proposal. The conditions offered were the same as before. The Russian emperor did not respond to these messages.
3. The 4th of October. The hopelessness of the situation led to Napoleon literally begging for peace. This is what he writes to Alexander 1 (according to the major French historian F. Segur): “I need peace, I need it, at all costs, just save your honor.” This proposal was delivered to Kutuzov, but the Emperor of France never received a response.

Retreat of the French army in the autumn-winter of 1812

It became obvious to Napoleon that he would not be able to sign a peace treaty with Russia, and that staying for the winter in Moscow, which the Russians had burned while retreating, was reckless. Moreover, it was impossible to stay here, since constant raids by militias caused great damage to the army. So, during the month that the French army was in Moscow, its strength decreased by 30 thousand people. As a result, the decision was made to retreat.

On October 7, preparations began for the retreat of the French army. One of the orders on this occasion was to blow up the Kremlin. Fortunately, this idea did not work out for him. Russian historians attribute this to the fact that due to high humidity, the wicks got wet and failed.

On October 19, the retreat of Napoleon's army from Moscow began. The purpose of this retreat was to reach Smolensk, since it was the only major nearby city that had significant food supplies. The road went through Kaluga, but Kutuzov blocked this direction. Now the advantage was on the side of the Russian army, so Napoleon decided to bypass. However, Kutuzov foresaw this maneuver and met the enemy army at Maloyaroslavets.

On October 24, the battle of Maloyaroslavets took place. During the day, this small town passed from one side to the other 8 times. In the final stage of the battle, Kutuzov managed to take fortified positions, and Napoleon did not dare to storm them, since the numerical superiority was already on the side of the Russian army. As a result, the French plans were thwarted, and they had to retreat to Smolensk along the same road along which they went to Moscow. It was already a scorched land - without food and without water.

Napoleon's retreat was accompanied by heavy losses. Indeed, in addition to clashes with Kutuzov’s army, we also had to deal with partisan detachments that daily attacked the enemy, especially his rear units. Napoleon's losses were terrible. On November 9, he managed to capture Smolensk, but this did not bring a fundamental change in the course of the war. There was practically no food in the city, and it was not possible to organize a reliable defense. As a result, the army was subjected to almost continuous attacks by militias and local patriots. Therefore, Napoleon stayed in Smolensk for 4 days and decided to retreat further.

Crossing the Berezina River

The French were heading to the Berezina River (in modern Belarus) to cross the river and cross to the Neman. But on November 16, General Chichagov captured the city of Borisov, which is located on the Berezina. Napoleon's situation became catastrophic - for the first time, the possibility of being captured was actively looming for him, since he was surrounded.

On November 25, by order of Napoleon, the French army began to imitate a crossing south of Borisov. Chichagov bought into this maneuver and began transferring troops. At this point, the French built two bridges across the Berezina and began crossing on November 26-27. Only on November 28, Chichagov realized his mistake and tried to give battle to the French army, but it was too late - the crossing was completed, albeit at the loss of a huge number of human lives. 21 thousand French died while crossing the Berezina! The “Grand Army” now consisted of only 9 thousand soldiers, most of whom were no longer capable of combat.

It was during this crossing that unusually severe frosts occurred, to which the French emperor referred, justifying huge losses. The 29th bulletin, which was published in one of the newspapers in France, said that until November 10 the weather was normal, but after that very severe cold came, for which no one was prepared.

Crossing the Neman (from Russia to France)

The crossing of the Berezina showed that Napoleon's Russian campaign was over - he lost the Patriotic War in Russia in 1812. Then the emperor decided that his further stay with the army did not make sense and on December 5 he left his troops and headed to Paris.

On December 16, in Kovno, the French army crossed the Neman and left Russian territory. Its strength was only 1,600 people. The invincible army, which terrified all of Europe, was almost completely destroyed by Kutuzov's army in less than 6 months.

Below is a graphical representation of Napoleon's retreat on the map.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War between Russia and Napoleon was of great importance for all countries involved in the conflict. Largely thanks to these events, England's undivided dominance in Europe became possible. This development was foreseen by Kutuzov, who, after the flight of the French army in December, sent a report to Alexander 1, where he explained to the ruler that the war needed to be ended immediately, and the pursuit of the enemy and the liberation of Europe would be beneficial to strengthening the power of England. But Alexander did not listen to the advice of his commander and soon began a campaign abroad.

Reasons for Napoleon's defeat in the war

When determining the main reasons for the defeat of Napoleonic army, it is necessary to dwell on the most important ones, which are most often used by historians:

• A strategic mistake by the Emperor of France, who sat in Moscow for 30 days and waited for representatives of Alexander 1 with pleas for peace. As a result, it began to get colder and provisions ran out, and constant raids by partisan movements brought a turning point in the war.
• Unity of the Russian people. As usual, in the face of great danger, the Slavs unite. It was the same this time. For example, the historian Lieven writes that the main reason for the defeat of France lies in the massive nature of the war. Everyone fought for the Russians - women and children. And all this was ideologically justified, which made the morale of the army very strong. The Emperor of France did not break him.
• The reluctance of Russian generals to accept a decisive battle. Most historians forget about this, but what would have happened to Bagration’s army if he had accepted a general battle at the beginning of the war, as Alexander 1 really wanted? 60 thousand of Bagration’s army against 400 thousand of the aggressor army. It would have been an unconditional victory, and they would hardly have had time to recover from it. Therefore, the Russian people must express words of gratitude to Barclay de Tolly, who, by his decision, gave the order for the retreat and unification of the armies.
• The genius of Kutuzov. The Russian general, who received excellent training from Suvorov, did not make a single tactical miscalculation. It is noteworthy that Kutuzov never managed to defeat his enemy, but managed to tactically and strategically win the Patriotic War.
• General Frost is used as an excuse. To be fair, it must be said that the frost did not have any significant impact on the final result, since at the time the abnormal frosts began (mid-November), the outcome of the confrontation was decided - the great army was destroyed.

French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. gave a powerful impetus to the rise of anti-feudal, anti-absolutist, national liberation movements, and contributed to profound transformations in European countries. The Napoleonic wars played a major role in this process.
Napoleon Bonaparte as a contender for world domination. The French bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the Directory regime, began to prepare a conspiracy to establish a military dictatorship. She considered the candidacy of General Napoleon Bonaparte to be a suitable figure for the role of dictator.
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 on the island. Corsica in a family of impoverished nobles. He brilliantly graduated from military school and became a general at the age of 24. Being a supporter of the revolution, he took part in the suppression of royalist uprisings, thereby earning the trust of the bourgeoisie. Bonaparte commanded an army in Northern Italy that defeated the Austrians, and participated in a military expedition to Egypt in 1798.
The coup d'état of November 9 (18 Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar of the VIII year of the Republic) 1799 opened a period of post-revolutionary stabilization in France. The bourgeoisie needed firm power to enrich itself and dominate. According to the new constitution of 1799, the legislative power was made dependent on the executive power, which was concentrated in the hands of the first consul - Napoleon Bonaparte. He managed domestic and foreign policy using authoritarian methods. In 1804, Napoleon was declared Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I. The codes of Napoleon I - civil, criminal, commercial - enshrined the principles proclaimed by the revolution: equality of citizens before the law, personal integrity, freedom of enterprise and trade, the right of private property as absolute and inviolable . The dictatorial power of Napoleon I helped to strengthen the positions of the bourgeoisie and did not allow the restoration of feudal orders. In foreign policy, Napoleon I embarked on the path of struggle for the military-political, commercial and industrial dominance of France in Europe and the world. This great commander, prudent politician, and subtle diplomat gave his talent to the service of the bourgeoisie and his immense ambition.
Confrontation and war. The main opponent of Napoleonic France was England. She feared an imbalance of power in Europe and sought to preserve her colonial possessions. England saw its main task in the overthrow of Napoleon and the return to power of the Bourbons.
The Amiens Peace Treaty of 1802 between France and England provided for the maintenance of the existing situation in Europe. England pledged to cleanse Egypt and Malta. However, both sides viewed the peace as a temporary respite, and in 1803 the war between them resumed. Napoleon I, who created the most powerful land army in Europe, could not resist the naval forces of England. On October 21, 1805, the combined Franco-Spanish fleet consisting of 33 battleships and 7 frigates was defeated by an English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson at Cape Trafalgar. The English fleet consisted of 27 battleships and 4 frigates. Nelson was mortally wounded during the moment of victory. The defeat of the French fleet put an end to Napoleonic plans for landing on the British Isles. After this, France moved to a continental blockade of England, which prohibited French traders and French dependent countries from trading with England.
In Europe, a third anti-French coalition emerged, which included England, Russia, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. The French army moved into Austria. On November 20, 1805, the Battle of Austerlitz took place, known as the Battle of Three Emperors. The combined forces of Austria and Russia were defeated. Under the terms of the Peace of Presburg, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II began to be called Austrian Emperor Francis I. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist. Austria admitted defeat and was forced to give the French complete freedom of action in Italy.
Napoleon's army invaded Prussia in 1806. A fourth anti-French coalition emerged, which included England, Russia, Prussia and Sweden. However, in the battles of Jena and Auerstadt in October 1806, the Prussian army was defeated. In November 1806, the French occupied Berlin and occupied most of Prussia. In the western part of Germany, Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine from 16 German states under his auspices.

Russia continued the war in East Prussia, but the two battles of Preussisch-Eylau (February 7 - 8, 1807) and Friedland (June 14, 1807) did not bring it success. She was forced to sign the Peace of Tilsit on July 7, 1807 and recognize all the conquests of France, as well as join the continental blockade of England. From the Polish lands that were part of Prussia, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw.
After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon I began to subjugate Portugal and Spain. At the end of 1807, the French army occupied Portugal, whose king fled to Brazil. Then the invasion of Spain began. The Spanish people rose up to fight against the French invaders. The people of Zaragoza heroically defended their city. They were blockaded by the fifty-thousand-strong French army for more than two months.
The Austrian government, taking advantage of the diversion of French forces to conquer Spain, began to prepare for a new war. In 1809, a fifth coalition arose, including England and Austria. The Austrian army began military operations in April 1809, but was defeated in the Battle of Wag-ram on July 5-6. Both sides suffered heavy losses (more than 60 thousand killed and wounded). According to the Treaty of Schönbrunn, Austria lost access to the sea and was forced to pay indemnity and join the continental blockade.
Destruction of feudal-absolutist orders. The wars of Napoleon I played an important role in the destruction of feudal relations in Europe.
The number of small states in Germany has decreased. The ruling circles of Prussia were forced, at the suggestion of Baron Stein, to issue a decree abolishing the personal serfdom of the peasants, although their duties in favor of the landowner remained. The military reform carried out by generals Scharngorst and Heisenau in Prussia abolished the recruitment of mercenaries, limited corporal punishment, and introduced short-term military training.
Napoleonic rule in Italian lands was accompanied by the elimination of the remnants of personal serfdom of peasants, the abolition of the landowners' court, and the introduction of the French civil code. In Spain, guilds, guilds, and a number of feudal duties of peasants were abolished. In the Duchy of Warsaw, personal serfdom of peasants was abolished, and the Napoleonic Codes were introduced.
The actions of Napoleon I to dismantle the feudal order in the conquered countries had progressive significance, as they opened the way for more rapid development of capitalism and weakened absolutist regimes. At the same time, taxes increased, the population was subject to indemnities and loans, and recruits were recruited, which aroused hatred of the enslavers and contributed to the emergence of national liberation movements.
Triumph and collapse of the Napoleonic Empire. By 1810, Napoleon I's empire had reached the zenith of its power. Almost all of continental Europe worked for France. French industrial production has advanced. New cities grew, ports, fortresses, canals, and roads were built. Many goods began to be exported from the country, especially silk and woolen fabrics. Foreign policy took on an increasingly aggressive character.
Napoleon I began preparing for war with Russia, the only power on the continent not subject to his control. The goal of the French emperor was to defeat Russia, then England and establish his world domination. On June 24, 1812, the army of Napoleon I crossed the Russian border. But already on October 18, 1812, the French were forced to retreat from Moscow. After crossing the Berezina, Napoleon I abandoned his army and secretly fled to Paris.
The defeat of Napoleonic army in Russia led to the growth of national liberation movements in European countries. The sixth coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Sweden, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, and then Austria. On October 16 - 19, 1813, in the Battle of Leipzig, called the Battle of the Nations, the French army was defeated and retreated across the Rhine. In the spring of 1814, military operations took place in France. On March 31, 1814, Allied troops entered Paris. The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France, Napoleon I was exiled to Fr. Elbe.
On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, according to which France was deprived of all occupied territories. The treaty provided for the convening of an international congress to resolve issues related to the collapse of the empire of Napoleon I. However, Napoleon I tried once again to return to power. He escaped from the Elbe, landed in the south of France, gathered an army and began a campaign against Paris. He managed to capture Paris and hold on to power for 100 days (March-June 1815). The last, seventh, coalition has emerged. On June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo, the French army was defeated by the Allies under the command of the Duke of Wellington. Napoleon I surrendered and was exiled to Fr. Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.
Vienna system of international relations. Holy Alliance. In September 1814, the Congress of Vienna opened, at which all European states were represented. It lasted until June 1815. Congress established an international order that went down in history as the Vienna System. It included two main elements - restoration, as far as possible, of the pre-Napoleonic order and new borders in the interests of the victors.
The congress participants were forced to reckon with the socio-economic and political changes that took place in France. The new owners retained the acquired property, and the rights of the old and new nobility of bourgeois origin were equalized. An indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed on France; before its payment, the northeastern departments of the country were occupied by allied forces, and the actions of the French government came under the control of four allied (English, Russian, Austrian, Prussian) ambassadors in Paris.
The Congress of Vienna approved new borders in Europe. France retained its territory within the borders of 1792. The fragmentation of Germany and Italy was consolidated. The German Confederation was created from 38 German states under the auspices of Austria. Prussia expanded at the expense of Saxony and West German lands around the Rhine, part of the Duchy of Warsaw with the city of Poznan. Lombardy and Venice were transferred to Austria. The Russian Empire included a part of the Duchy of Warsaw called the Kingdom of Poland with relatively large internal autonomy. Norway was taken away from Napoleon I's ally, Denmark, and transferred to Swedish rule. England expanded its colonial possessions outside of Europe.
A significant addition to the Vienna system was the Holy Alliance, created at the suggestion of Alexander I. Its main goal was to provide mutual assistance to protect monarchical power, the Christian religion, and the foundations of the Vienna system. The Holy Alliance turned into an instrument of armed suppression of revolutions and national liberation movements of the 20s - 40s. XIX century
The Vienna system lasted for several decades and was controversial. There were disagreements between its founders on many issues of European and world politics.

(Condensed essay)

1. Second Italian company of Bonaparte. Battle of Marengo

On May 8, 1800, Bonaparte left Paris and went to a new big war. His main opponent was still the Austrians, who, after Suvorov left, occupied Northern Italy. The Austrian commander-in-chief Melas expected Napoleon to lead his army along the coast, as before, and concentrated his troops here. But the first consul chose the most difficult route - through the Alps and the St. Bernard Pass. The weak Austrian barriers were overthrown, and at the end of May the entire French army suddenly emerged from the Alpine gorges and deployed in the rear of the Austrian troops. On June 2, Bonaparte occupied Milan. Melas hurried to meet the enemy, and on June 14, a meeting of the main forces took place near the village of Marengo. All the advantage was on the side of the Austrians. Against 20 thousand French they had 30, the advantage in artillery was generally overwhelming, almost tenfold. Therefore, the start of the battle was unsuccessful for Bonaparte. The French were driven from their positions and retreated with heavy losses. But at four o'clock Deze's fresh division arrived, which had not yet taken part in the battle. Straight from the march, she entered the battle, and the whole army went on the attack after her. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and fled. Already at five o'clock Melas's army was completely defeated. The triumph of the winners was overshadowed only by the death of Dese, who died at the very beginning of the attack. Upon learning of this, Napoleon cried for the first time in his life.

2. French victories in Germany

In early December 1800, General Moreau defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden. After this victory, the road to Vienna was open for the French. Emperor Franz II agreed to peace negotiations.

3. Peace of Luneville

On February 9, 1801, the Peace of Luneville was concluded between France and Austria, which confirmed the main provisions of the Treaty of Campoformia of 1797. The Holy Roman Empire was completely ousted from the left bank of the Rhine, and this territory completely passed to France, which, in addition, acquired the Dutch possessions of Austria ( Belgium) and Luxembourg. Austria recognized the Batavian Republic (Netherlands), the Helvetic Republic (Switzerland), as well as the restored Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (Lombardy and Genoa), which all remained virtually French possessions. Tuscany was taken from the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand III and turned into the kingdom of Etruria. Following Austria, the Neapolitan Bourbons concluded peace with France. Thus, the Second Coalition collapsed.

4. Treaty of Aranjuez. Return of Louisiana to France

On March 21, 1801, Bonaparte concluded the Treaty of Aranjuez with the Spanish King Charles IV. Under its terms, Spain returned Western Louisiana in America to France. In exchange, Bonaparte gave the kingdom of Etruria (formerly Tuscany) to the son-in-law of the Spanish king Charles IV, Infante Luigi I of Parma. Spain had to start a war with Portugal to force it to abandon its alliance with Great Britain.

5. Surrender of the French corps in Egypt

The position of the French army, abandoned by Bonaparte and blocked in Egypt, became more and more difficult every month. In March 1801, after the English army allied to the Turks landed in Egypt, its defeat became inevitable. On August 30, 1801, the French corps capitulated to the British.

6. Italian Republic

In December 1801, the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic. The republic was headed by a president who had virtually unlimited powers. Bonaparte himself was elected to this post, but in fact the current affairs were handled by Vice President Duke Melzi. Thanks to the good financier Prina, whom Melzi made Minister of Finance, it was possible to eliminate the budget deficit and replenish the treasury.

7. Peace of Amiens

On March 25, 1802, a peace treaty with Great Britain was signed in Amiens, ending the nine-year Anglo-French war. This treaty was later joined by the Batavian Republic and the Ottoman Empire. French troops had to leave Naples, Rome and the island of Elba, the British - all the ports and islands they occupied in the Mediterranean Sea and the Adriatic. The Batavian Republic ceded its possessions in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to Great Britain. The island of Malta, occupied by the British in September 1800, was to be abandoned by them and returned to its former owner - the Order of St. John of Jerusalem

8. State and legislative reforms of Bonaparte

Bonaparte devoted the two years of peaceful respite that France received after the conclusion of the Peace of Luneville to government and legislative reforms. The law of February 17, 1800 abolished all elective offices and assemblies. According to the new system, the Minister of the Interior appointed a prefect to each department, who became the sovereign ruler and overlord here and, in turn, appointed mayors of cities.

On July 15, 1801, a concordat was signed with Pope Pius VII (1800-1823), by virtue of which the state Catholic Church of France was restored in April 1802; bishops were to be appointed by the first consul, but receive approval from the pope.

On August 2, 1802, a new constitution of the year X was adopted, according to which Bonaparte was declared “first consul for life.” Thus, he finally became a complete and unlimited dictator.

In March 1804, the development of the civil code was completed, which became the basic law and basis of French jurisprudence. At the same time, work was underway on a commercial code (finally adopted in 1807). Here, for the first time, regulations were formulated and codified regulating and legally ensuring trade transactions, the life of the stock exchange and banks, bill and notarial law.

9. “Final resolution of the imperial deputation”

The Peace of Luneville recognized the annexation by France of the left bank of the Rhine, including the lands of the three spiritual electors - Cologne, Mainz and Trier. The decision on the issue of territorial compensation for the injured German princes was submitted to the imperial deputation. After lengthy negotiations, under pressure from France, the final project for the reorganization of the empire was adopted, which was approved on March 24, 1803 by the Imperial Reichstag. According to the “Final Decree,” church possessions in Germany were secularized and, for the most part, became part of large secular states. Almost all (with the exception of six) imperial cities also ceased to exist as subjects of imperial law. In total, 112 small state entities were abolished, not counting the lands annexed by France. Their 3 million subjects were distributed among a dozen major principalities. The largest increases were received by the French allies Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, as well as Prussia, under whose rule most of the church's possessions in Northern Germany came. After the completion of territorial delimitation by 1804, about 130 states remained within the Holy Roman Empire. The liquidation of free cities and ecclesiastical principalities - traditionally the main support of the empire - led to a complete decline in the influence of the imperial throne. Francis II had to approve the Reichstag resolution, although he understood that he was thus authorizing the actual destruction of the institution of the Holy Roman Empire.

10. "Louisiana Purchase"

The most important event during the reign of the third US President Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) was the so-called. The Louisiana Purchase was a deal for the United States to acquire French possessions in North America. On April 30, 1803, a treaty was signed in Paris, according to which First Consul Bonaparte ceded Western Louisiana to the United States. For a territory of 2,100,000 square kilometers (almost a quarter of the current United States), the federal government paid 80 million French francs or 15 million American dollars. The American nation took possession of New Orleans and the vast desert that lay west from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains (which served as the border of the Spanish possessions). The following year, the United States laid claim to the Missouri-Columbia basin.

11. The beginning of a new Anglo-French war

The Peace of Amiens turned out to be only a short-term truce. Both sides continually violated their obligations under this agreement. In May 1803, diplomatic relations between Great Britain and France were interrupted, and the Anglo-French war resumed. English territory itself was unattainable for Bonaparte. But in May-June 1803, the French occupied Hanover, which belonged to the English king.

12. Execution of the Duke of Enghien. The gap between Russia and France

At the beginning of 1804, a conspiracy against the first consul, organized by the Bourbons expelled from France, was discovered in Paris. Bonaparte was furious and thirsty for blood. But since all the main representatives of the Bourbon family lived in London and were out of his reach, he decided to take it out on the last scion of the Conde family, the Duke of Enghien, who, although he had nothing to do with the conspiracy, lived nearby. On the night of March 14-15, 1804, a detachment of the French gendarmerie invaded the territory of Baden, arrested the Duke of Enghien in his house and took him to France. On the night of March 20, a trial of the arrested man took place at the Chateau de Vincennes. 15 minutes after the death sentence was pronounced, the Duke was shot. This massacre had a huge public outcry and its consequences were very sensitive, both in France itself and throughout Europe. In April, the indignant Alexander I broke off diplomatic relations with France.

13. Proclamation of the French Empire. Napoleon I

In 1804, institutions that pretended to represent the French people, but in fact were filled with minions and executors of the will of the first consul - the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps and the Senate - raised the question of turning the lifelong consulate into a hereditary monarchy. Bonaparte agreed to fulfill their wishes, but did not want to accept the royal title. Like Charlemagne, he decided to declare himself emperor. In April 1804, the Senate passed a resolution giving the first consul Napoleon Bonaparte the title of Emperor of the French. On December 2, 1804, in the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Pope Pius VII solemnly crowned and anointed Napoleon I (1804-1814,1815).

14. Proclamation of the Austrian Empire

In response to the proclamation of Napoleon I as Emperor, the Austrian Empire was proclaimed on August 11, 1804. The King of Hungary and Czech, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II accepted the title of hereditary Emperor of Austria (under the name Franz I).

15. Kingdom of Italy

In March 1805, the Italian Republic was transformed into the Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon arrived in Pavia and on May 26 was crowned with the iron crown of the Lombard kings. The administration of the country was entrusted to the viceroy, who became Napoleon's stepson Eugene Beauharnais.

16. Treaty of St. Petersburg. Formation of the Third Coalition

The Third Anti-French Coalition began with the St. Petersburg Union Treaty concluded on April 11 (23), 1805 between Russia and Great Britain. Both sides had to try to attract other powers to the alliance. Great Britain pledged to assist the coalition with its fleet and provide the Allied powers with a cash subsidy of £1,250,000 annually for every 100,000 men. Subsequently, Austria, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples and Portugal joined the Third Coalition. Spain, Bavaria and Italy fought on the side of France. The Prussian king remained neutral.

17. Liquidation of the Ligurian Republic

On June 4, 1805, Napoleon liquidated the Ligurian Republic. Genoa and Luca were annexed to France.

18. The beginning of the Russian-Austro-French war of 1805

Until the end of the summer of 1805, Napoleon was confident that he would have to cross to England. In Boulogne, on the English Channel, everything was ready for the landing. However, on August 27, the emperor received news that Russian troops had already moved to join the Austrians, and that the Austrians were ready for an offensive war against him. Realizing that there was now nothing to even dream about landing, Napoleon raised an army and moved it from the shores of the English Channel to the east. The Allies did not expect such swiftness and were taken by surprise.

19. Disaster near Ulm

At the beginning of October, the corps of Soult, Lanna and Murat's cavalry crossed the Danube and appeared in the rear of the Austrian army. Some of the Austrians managed to escape, but the main mass was thrown back by the French to the Ulm fortress. On October 20, the commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, General Mack, surrendered to Napoleon with all military supplies, artillery and banners. In total, about 60 thousand Austrian soldiers were captured in a short time.

20. Battle of Trafalgar

On October 21, 1805, a naval battle took place between the English and Franco-Spanish fleets at Cape Trafalgar near Cadiz. French Admiral Villeneuve lined up his ships in one line. However, the wind that day made their movement difficult. The English Admiral Nelson, taking advantage of this, moved forward several of the fastest ships, and the British fleet followed them in two columns in marching formation. The chain of enemy ships was broken in several places. Having lost formation, they became easy prey for the British. Of the 40 ships, the Allies lost 22, the British - none. But during the battle, Admiral Nelson himself was mortally wounded. After the Trafalgar defeat, the dominance of the English fleet at sea became overwhelming. Napoleon had to forever abandon plans to cross the English Channel and war on English territory.

21. Battle of Austerlitz

On November 13, the French entered Vienna, crossed to the left bank of the Danube and attacked Kutuzov’s Russian army. With heavy rearguard battles, having lost up to 12 thousand people, Kutuzov retreated to Olmutz, where Emperors Alexander I and Franz I were located and where their main forces were preparing to take the battle. On December 2, a general battle took place in the hilly area around the Pratzen Heights, west of the village of Austerlitz. Napoleon foresaw that the Russians and Austrians would try to cut him off from the road to Vienna and from the Danube in order to encircle him or drive him north into the mountains. Therefore, he seemed to leave this part of his positions without cover and protection and deliberately pushed back his right flank, placing Davout’s corps on it. The emperor chose the Pratsen Heights as the direction of his main attack, opposite which he concentrated two-thirds of all his forces: the corps of Soult, Bernadotte and Murat. At dawn, the Allies launched an offensive against the French right flank, but met stubborn resistance from Davout. Emperor Alexander, by his order, sent Kolovrat’s corps, located on the Pratsen Heights, to help the attackers. Then the French went on the offensive and delivered a powerful blow to the center of the enemy position. Two hours later the Pratsen Heights were captured. Having deployed batteries on them, Napoleon opened murderous fire on the flank and rear of the allied forces, who began to retreat randomly across Lake Zachan. Many Russians were killed by grapeshot or drowned in ponds, others surrendered.

22. Treaty of Schönbrunn. Franco-Prussian Alliance

On December 15, an alliance treaty was concluded in Schönbrunn between France and Prussia, according to which Napoleon ceded Hanover, which had been taken from Great Britain, to Frederick William III. For patriots, this treaty seemed insulting. Indeed, the taking of Hanover from the hands of Germany's enemy, while most Germans were mourning the defeat at Austerlitz, looked unseemly.

23. Peace of Presburg. Collapse of the Third Coalition

On December 26, a peace treaty between France and Austria was signed in Presburg. Francis I ceded the Venetian region, Istria and Dalmatia to the Kingdom of Italy. In addition, Austria was deprived of all its possessions in southwestern Germany and Tyrol in favor of Napoleon's allies (the former were divided between Baden and Württemberg, the latter was annexed to Bavaria). Emperor Franz recognized the titles of kings for the sovereigns of Bavaria and Württemberg.

24. French influence in Germany

Close rapprochement with France entailed major changes in internal relations in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and other states - the elimination of medieval zemstvo ranks, the abolition of many noble privileges, easing the lot of peasants, increasing religious tolerance, limiting the power of the clergy, destroying a mass of monasteries, various kinds of administrative , judicial, financial, military and educational reforms, introduction of the Napoleonic Code.

25. Expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples. Joseph Bonaparte

After the conclusion of the Peace of Presburg, the Neapolitan king Fernando IV fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet. In February 1806, the French army invaded southern Italy. In March, Napoleon deposed the Neapolitan Bourbons by decree and transferred the crown of Naples to his brother Joseph Bonaparte (1806-1808).

26. Kingdom of Holland. Louis Bonaparte

On June 5, 1806, Napoleon abolished the Batavian Republic and announced the creation of the Kingdom of Holland. He proclaimed his younger brother Louis Bonaparte (1806-1810) king. Contrary to expectations, Louis turned out to be a good sovereign. Having settled in The Hague, he began to take Dutch lessons, and generally took to heart the needs of the people under his control.

27. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine

The Austerlitz victory made it possible for Napoleon to extend his power to all of western and part of central Germany. On July 12, 1806, sixteen German sovereigns (including Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden) declared secession from the Holy Roman Empire, signed an agreement to create the Union of the Rhine and elected Napoleon as their protector. In the event of war, they pledged to send 63 thousand soldiers to help France. The formation of the union was accompanied by a new mediatization, that is, the subordination of small immediate (immediat) holders of the supreme power of large sovereigns.

28. Liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire

The Confederation of the Rhine made the continued existence of the Holy Roman Empire meaningless. On August 6, 1806, Emperor Franz, at the request of Napoleon, renounced the title of Roman Emperor and freed all members of the empire from the duties imposed on them by the imperial constitution.

29. Cooling between France and Prussia

The Treaty of Schönbrunn did not lead to a rapprochement between France and Prussia. The interests of the two countries constantly clashed in Germany. Napoleon persistently prevented the formation of the “northern German alliance”, which Frederick William III tried to organize. Considerable annoyance in Berlin was caused by the fact that, having attempted peace negotiations with Great Britain, Napoleon expressed his readiness to return Hanover to her.

30. Folding of the Fourth Coalition

Great Britain and Russia did not give up attempts to win Prussia over to their side. Their efforts were soon crowned with success. On June 19 and July 12, secret union declarations were signed between Russia and Prussia. In the fall of 1806, the Fourth Anti-French Coalition formed, consisting of Great Britain, Sweden, Prussia, Saxony and Russia.

31. The beginning of the Russian-Prussian-French war of 1806-1807.

Every day the war party in Prussia became more numerous. Pushed by her, the king dared to take decisive action. On October 1, 1806, he addressed Napoleon with an arrogant ultimatum, in which he ordered him to withdraw his troops from Germany. Napoleon rejected all of Frederick William's demands, and war began on October 6. The timing was extremely unfortunate for her, since Russia had not yet had time to transfer its troops to the west. Prussia found itself alone with the enemy, and the emperor took full advantage of his position.

32. Battles of Jena and Auerstedt

On October 8, 1806, Napoleon ordered the invasion of Prussia's allied Saxony. On October 14, the main forces of the French army attacked the Prussians and Saxons near Jena. The Germans stubbornly defended themselves, but, in the end, they were overthrown and turned to mass flight. At the same time, Marshal Davout at Auerstedt defeated another Prussian army under the command of the Duke of Brunswick. When news of this double defeat spread, panic and disintegration in the Prussian army became complete. No one thought about resistance anymore and everyone fled in front of the rapidly approaching Napoleon. First-class fortresses, abundantly supplied with everything necessary for a long siege, surrendered at the first request of the French marshals. On October 27, Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin. On November 8, the last Prussian fortress, Magdeburg, capitulated. The entire campaign against Prussia took exactly a month. Europe, which still remembered the Seven Years' War and the heroic struggle of Frederick II against numerous enemies, was shocked by this lightning massacre.

33. Continental blockade

Impressed by his triumph, Napoleon signed the Berlin decree on the “blockade of the British Isles” on November 21, which prohibited all trade and all relations with Great Britain. This decree was sent to all states dependent on the empire. However, at first the blockade did not have the consequences for Great Britain that the emperor had hoped for. Complete dominance over the ocean opened up a huge market in the American colonies for English manufacturers. Industrial activity not only did not stop, but continued to develop feverishly.

34. Battles of Pultusk and Preussisch-Eylau

In November 1806, the French, following the retreating Prussians, entered Poland. On the 28th, Murat occupied Warsaw. On December 26, the first major battle took place with the Russian corps of Bennigsen near Pultusk, which ended inconclusively. Both sides were preparing for a decisive battle. It occurred on February 8, 1807 near Preussisch-Eylau. However, complete victory again did not work out - despite the huge losses (about 26 thousand people), Bennigsen retreated in perfect order. Napoleon, having sacrificed up to 30 thousand of his soldiers, was as far from success as last year. The French had to spend a difficult winter in a completely devastated Poland.

35. Battle of Friedland

The Russian-French war resumed in June 1807 and this time was very short. Napoleon moved to Königsberg. Bennigsen had to rush to his defense and concentrated his troops near the town of Friedland. On June 14, he had to fight in a very disadvantageous position. The Russians were driven back with huge losses. Almost all of their artillery was in the hands of the French. Bennigsen led his frustrated army to the Neman and managed to retreat across the river before the French approached. Napoleon stood on the border of the Russian Empire. But he was not yet ready to cross it.

36. World of Tilsit

On June 19, a truce was concluded. On June 25, Napoleon and Alexander I met for the first time on a raft in the middle of the Neman, and talked face to face for about an hour in a covered pavilion. Negotiations then continued in Tilsit, and on July 7 a peace treaty was signed. Alexander I had to break off relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade. He also promised to withdraw his troops from Moldova and Wallachia. The conditions that Napoleon dictated to the Prussian king were much harsher: Prussia lost all its possessions on the western bank of the Elbe (on these lands Napoleon formed the kingdom of Westphalia, assigning it to his brother Jerome; Hanover and the cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck were annexed directly to France) . She also lost most of the Polish provinces, united into the Duchy of Warsaw, which went into a personal union with the King of Saxony. An exorbitant indemnity was imposed on Prussia. Until it was fully paid, occupation troops remained in the country. This was one of the harshest peace treaties Napoleon ever concluded.

37. Beginning of the Anglo-Danish war of 1807-1814.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, a persistent rumor appeared that Denmark was ready to enter the war on the side of Napoleon. In view of this, the British government demanded that the Danes transfer their navy to the “deposit” of the English government. Denmark refused. Then, on August 14, 1807, an English force landed near Copenhagen. The Danish capital was blocked from land and sea. On September 2, a brutal bombardment of the city began (in three days, 14 thousand gun and rocket salvoes were fired; the city was burned out by a third, 2,000 civilians were killed). On September 7, the Copenhagen garrison laid down its arms. The British captured the entire Danish navy, but the Danish government refused to capitulate and turned to France for help. At the end of October 1807, a Franco-Danish military alliance was concluded and Denmark officially joined the continental blockade.

38. Beginning of the Franco-Spanish-Portuguese War of 1807-1808.

Having finished with Russia and Prussia, Napoleon demanded that Portugal also join the continental blockade. Prince Regent John (who had effectively ruled the country since 1792, after his mother Queen Maria I began to show signs of insanity) refused. This became the reason for the start of the war. Portugal was invaded by the French corps of General Junot, supported by Spanish troops. On November 29, Junot entered Lisbon without a fight. Two days earlier, Prince Regent João had left the capital and sailed to Brazil. The whole country came under French rule.

39. The beginning of the Anglo-Russian war of 1807-1812.

On November 7, 1807, Russia declared war on Great Britain, forced to take this step by the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit. Although the war formally lasted five years, there was no real hostilities between the opponents. Britain's ally Sweden suffered much more from this war.

40. Beginning of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809.

Having joined the Fourth Coalition in April 1805, the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf (1792-1809) firmly adhered to the alliance with Great Britain. Thus, after the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, he found himself in a camp hostile to Russia. This circumstance gave Alexander I a convenient reason to take Finland from Sweden. On February 18, 1808, Russian troops suddenly captured Helsingfors. In March Svartholm was occupied. On April 26, Sveaborg surrendered after a siege. But then (largely thanks to the bold attacks of the Finnish partisans) the Russian troops began to suffer defeats. The war became protracted.

41. Aranjuez performance. Abdication of Charles IV

Under the pretext of military action against Portugal, Napoleon sent more and more troops to Spain. The all-powerful favorite of Queen Godoy surrendered San Sebastian, Pamplona and Barcelona to the French. In March 1808, Murat approached Madrid. On the night of March 17-18, an uprising broke out against the king and Godoy in the city of Aranjuez, where the Spanish court was located. It soon spread to Madrid. On March 19, Godoy resigned, and Charles abdicated the throne in favor of his son Fernando VII, who was considered the leader of the patriotic party. On March 23, Madrid was occupied by the French.

Napoleon did not recognize the coup that had taken place in Spain. He summoned Charles IV and Fernando VII to France, ostensibly to settle the issue of succession to the throne. Meanwhile, a rumor spread in Madrid that Murat intended to take the last heir of the king, Infanta Francisco, out of Spain. This was the reason for the uprising. On May 2, the townspeople, led by patriotic officers, opposed 25 thousand. French garrison. Fierce street fighting continued throughout the day. By the morning of May 3, the uprising was suppressed by the French, but news of it shook up all of Spain.

43. Deposition of Fernando VII. King Joseph of Spain

Meanwhile, the worst fears of the Spanish patriots came true. On May 5, in Bayonne, Charles IV and Fernando VII, under pressure from Napoleon, abdicated the throne in his favor. On May 10, Napoleon proclaimed his brother Joseph (1808-1813) king of Spain. However, even before his arrival in Madrid, a powerful liberation war broke out in the country.

44. Bayonne Constitution of 1808

To reconcile the Spaniards with the coup, Napoleon granted them a constitution. Spain was declared a constitutional monarchy with a Senate, a Council of State and a Cortes. Of the 172 deputies of the Cortes, 80 were appointed by the king. The rights of the Cortes were not precisely established. The Constitution limited the primogeniture, abolished internal customs and established a uniform tax system; abolished feudal legal proceedings and introduced uniform civil and criminal legislation for Spain and its colonies.

45. Annexation of Tuscany to France

After the death of King Luigi I (1801-1803) in May 1803, his widow Queen Maria Luisa, daughter of the Spanish King Charles IV, ruled for four years in Etruria. On December 20, 1807, the kingdom was liquidated. On May 29, 1808, Etruria, which was returned to its former name Tuscany, was annexed to the French Empire. In March 1809, the administration of this region was entrusted to Napoleon's sister, Princess Elisa Baciocchi, who received the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany.

46. ​​National uprising in Spain

It seemed that with the accession of Joseph Bonaparte the conquest of Spain was over. But in fact, everything was just beginning. After the suppression of the May uprising, the French constantly encountered in this country countless, almost daily manifestations of the most frantic fanatical hatred. In June 1808, a powerful uprising began in Andalusia and Galicia. General Dupont moved against the rebels, but was surrounded by them and on July 20 surrendered along with his entire detachment near Baylen. The impression made by this event on the conquered countries was enormous. On July 31, the French left Madrid.

47. British landing in Portugal. Battle of Vimeiro

In June 1808, an uprising broke out in Portugal. On June 19, the Supreme Government Junta was established in Porto. In August, British troops landed in Portugal. On August 21, the English General Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington) defeated the French Governor-General of Portugal, Junot, at Vimeira. On 30 August, Junot signed an agreement in Sintra for the evacuation of all French troops from Portuguese territory. The British occupied Lisbon

48. Murat on the Neapolitan throne

After Joseph Bonaparte moved to Spain, Napoleon on August 1, 1808 proclaimed his son-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat (1808-1815) king of Naples.

49. Erfurt meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I

From September 27 to October 14, 1808, negotiations were held in Erfurt between the French and Russian emperors. Alexander firmly and decisively expressed his demands to Napoleon. Under his pressure, Napoleon abandoned plans for the restoration of Poland, promised not to interfere in the affairs of the Danube principalities, and agreed to the annexation of Finland to Russia. In return, Alexander pledged to support France against Austria and cemented an offensive alliance against Great Britain. As a result, both emperors achieved their intended goals, but at the same time made concessions that they could not and did not want to forgive each other.

50. Napoleon's campaign in Spain. French victories

In the autumn of 1808, all of Southern Spain was engulfed in the fire of an uprising. Here a real rebel army was formed, armed with English weapons. The French only retained control over the northern part of the country up to the Ebro River. Napoleon gathered an army of 100,000 and personally led it beyond the Pyrenees. On November 10, he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Spaniards near Burgos. On December 4, the French entered Madrid. On January 16, 1809, Marshal Soult defeated the English expeditionary force of General Moore at La Coruña. But the resistance did not weaken. Zaragoza stubbornly repelled all attacks of the French for several months. Finally, in February 1809, Marshal Lannes entered the city over the bodies of its defenders, but after that, for another three weeks there were stubborn battles for literally every house. The brutalized soldiers had to kill everyone indiscriminately - women, children and the elderly. Looking out over the streets littered with corpses, Lann said: “Such a victory only brings sadness!”

51. Russian offensive in Finland

By November 1808, the Russian army occupied all of Finland. On March 2, 1809, advancing on the ice of the frozen Botanical Bay, General Bagration captured the Åland Islands. Another Russian detachment under the command of Barclay de Tolly crossed the bay at Kvarken. After this, the Åland Truce was concluded.

52. Fifth Coalition

In the spring of 1809, the British managed to put together a new anti-French coalition. In addition to Great Britain and the rebel Spanish army, Austria joined it.

53. Austro-French War of 1809

On April 9, the Austrian army under the command of Archduke Charles invaded Bavaria from the Czech Republic. On April 19-23, major battles took place at Abensberg, Eckmuhl and Regensburg. Having lost about 45 thousand people in them, Charles retreated to the left bank of the Danube. Pursuing the enemy, Napoleon occupied Vienna on May 13 and tried to cross the Danube. On May 21-22, a fierce battle took place near the villages of Aspern and Essling, in which the French suffered heavy losses. Among many others, Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded. After this defeat, hostilities ceased for a month and a half. Both sides were preparing for a decisive battle. It happened on July 5-6 on the banks of the Danube near the village of Wagram. Archduke Charles was defeated, and on July 11 Emperor Franz offered Napoleon a truce.

54. Liquidation of the Papal State by Napoleon

In February 1808, French troops reoccupied Rome. On May 17, 1809, Napoleon annexed the papal state to France and declared Rome a free city. Pope Pius VII condemned the “robbers of the inheritance of St. Petra." In response, on July 5, French military authorities took the pope to Fontainebleau near Paris.

55. Peace of Friedrichsham. Annexation of Finland to Russia

Meanwhile, Russia brought the war with Sweden to victory. On May 20, 1809, the Swedes were defeated at Umeå. After this, the fighting was sluggish. On September 5 (17), a peace treaty was signed in Friedrichsham. Sweden ceded Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia. She had to break her alliance with Great Britain and join the continental blockade.

56. World of Schönbrunn. End of the Fifth Coalition

On October 14, 1809, a peace treaty between Austria and France was signed in Schönbrunn. Austria ceded Salzburg and some neighboring lands to Bavaria, Western Galicia, Krakow and Lublin to the Duchy of Warsaw, Eastern Galicia (Tarnopol District) to Russia. Western Carinthia, Carniola, Gorizia, Istria, Dalmatia and Ragusa, torn away from Austria, formed the autonomous Illyrian provinces under the supreme authority of Napoleon.

57. Napoleon's marriage to Marie Louise

On April 1, 1810, Napoleon married the eldest daughter of Emperor Franz I, Marie Louise, after which Austria became France's closest ally.

58. Annexation of the Netherlands to France

The attitude of King Louis Bonaparte towards the continental blockade always remained sharply negative, since it threatened the Netherlands with terrible decline and desolation. Louis turned a blind eye to the flourishing smuggling for a long time, despite his brother’s severe reprimands. Then, on June 9, 1810, Napoleon announced the inclusion of the kingdom into the French Empire. The Netherlands was divided into nine French departments, and suffered severely under the Napoleonic regime.

59. Election of Bernadotte as heir to the Swedish throne

Since the Swedish king Charles XIII was old and childless, the deputies of the Riksdag became concerned about electing an heir to the throne. After some hesitation, they chose the French Marshal Bernadotte. (In 1806, during the war in Northern Germany, more than a thousand Swedes were captured by Bernadotte, who commanded one of the imperial corps; he treated them with special attention; the Swedish officers were received by the marshal with such courtesy that later this all of Sweden found out). On August 21, 1810, the Riksdag elected Bernadotte as crown prince. He converted to Lutheranism and, upon arriving in Sweden on November 5, was adopted by Charles XIII. Later, due to illness (dementia), the king withdrew from state affairs, entrusting them to his stepson. The choice of the Riksdag turned out to be very successful. Although Karl Johan (as Bernadotte was now called) did not learn to speak Swedish until his death, he was very good at defending Swedish interests. While most of his subjects dreamed of returning Finland captured by Russia, he set his goal to acquire Danish Norway and began to methodically strive for it.

60. Fighting in 1809-1811. on the Iberian Peninsula

On July 28, 1809, the English army of General Wellesley, with the support of the Spaniards and Portuguese, had a fierce battle with the French near Talavera de la Reina. Success was on the side of the British (Wellesley received the title of Viscount Talavera and Lord Wellington for this victory). Then the stubborn war continued with varying success. On November 12, 1809, Marshal Soult defeated the Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish troops at Ocaña. In January 1810 he took Seville and besieged Cadiz, although he was never able to capture the city. In the same year, Marshal Massena invaded Portugal, but was defeated on September 27, 1810 by Wellington at Vuzaco. In March 1811, Soult captured the strong fortress of Badajoz, which guarded the road to Portugal, and on May 16, 1811, he was defeated by the British and Portuguese at Albuera.

61. The brewing of a new Franco-Russian war

Already in January 1811, Napoleon began to seriously think about war with Russia. This, among many other things, was prompted by the new customs tariff introduced by Alexander I in 1810, which imposed high duties on French imports. Alexander then allowed ships of neutral countries to sell their goods in his ports, which negated all of Napoleon’s enormous costs of maintaining the continental blockade. Added to this were constant clashes of interests between the two powers in Poland, Germany and Turkey. On February 24, 1812, Napoleon concluded an alliance treaty with Prussia, which was supposed to field 20 thousand soldiers against Russia. On March 14, a military alliance was concluded with Austria, according to which the Austrians pledged to field 30 thousand soldiers against Russia.

62. Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 (24) with the passage of the French army across the Neman. At this time, about 450 thousand soldiers were directly subordinate to Napoleon (another 140 thousand arrived in Russia later). Russian troops (about 220 thousand) under the command of Barclay de Tolly were divided into three independent armies (1st - under the command of Barclay himself, 2nd - Bagration, 3rd - Tormasov). The emperor hoped to separate them, surround and destroy each one separately. Trying to avoid this, Barclay and Bagration began to hastily retreat deeper into the country. On August 3 (15), they successfully united near Smolensk. On August 4 (16), Napoleon pulled his main forces to this city and began its assault. For two days the Russians fiercely defended Smolensk, but on the evening of 5 (17) Barclay ordered the retreat to continue.

63. Peace of Orebrus

On July 18, 1812, in the city of Örebro (Sweden), Great Britain and Russia signed a peace treaty, ending the Anglo-Russian War of 1807-1812.

64. Kutuzov. battle of Borodino

On August 8 (20), Alexander gave main command of the army to General Kutuzov. (On September 11 he was promoted to field marshal). On August 23 (September 4), Napoleon was informed that Kutuzov had taken a position near the village of Borodino, and his rearguard was defending a fortified redoubt near the village of Shevardino. On August 24 (September 5) the French drove the Russians out of Shevardino and began to prepare for a general battle. At Borodino, Kutuzov had 120 thousand soldiers with 640 guns. His position was 8 kilometers long. Its center rested on Kurgan Heights. Flushes were erected on the left flank. After inspecting the Russian fortifications, Napoleon, who by this time had 135 thousand soldiers with 587 guns, decided to deliver the main blow in the flush area, break through the position of the Russian army here and go to its rear. In this direction he concentrated the corps of Murat, Davout, Ney, Junot and the guard (a total of 86 thousand with 400 guns). The battle began at dawn on August 26 (September 7). Beauharnais launched a diversionary attack on Borodino. At six in the morning, Davout launched an assault on the flushes, but, despite his triple superiority in forces, he was repulsed. At seven in the morning the attack was repeated. The French took the left flush, but were again repulsed and driven back. Then Napoleon brought the corps of Ney, Junot and Murat into battle. Kutuzov also began to transfer reserves and troops from the right flank to Bagration. At eight in the morning the French broke into the flushes for the second time, and were again driven back. Then, before 11 o'clock, four more unsuccessful attacks were made. The murderous fire of Russian batteries from Kurgan Heights inflicted severe damage on the French. By 12 o'clock Napoleon had concentrated two-thirds of his army against Kutuzov's left flank. Only after this the French were finally able to master flushes. Bagration, who defended them, was mortally wounded. Developing success, the emperor moved the attack to Kurgan Heights, moving 35 thousand soldiers against it. At this critical moment, Kutuzov sent the cavalry corps of Platov and Uvarov to bypass Napoleon’s left flank. Repelling this attack, Napoleon delayed the assault on Kurgan Heights for two hours. Finally, at four o'clock, Beauharnais's corps captured the heights with the third attack. Contrary to expectations, there was no breakthrough in the Russian position. The Russians were only pushed back, but continued to stubbornly defend. Napoleon failed to achieve decisive success in any direction - the enemy retreated, but was not defeated. Napoleon did not want to move the guard into battle and at six o’clock in the evening withdrew the troops to their original positions. In this unresolved battle, the French lost about 40 thousand people, the Russians - about the same. The next day, Kutuzov refused to continue the battle and retreated further to the east.

65. Napoleon in Moscow

On September 2 (14), Napoleon entered Moscow without a fight. The very next day, severe fires broke out in the city. By the evening of September 6 (18), the fire, having destroyed most of the houses, began to weaken. However, from this time on, the French began to experience severe food difficulties. Foraging outside the city due to the action of Russian partisans also proved difficult. Horses were dying by the hundreds per day. Discipline in the army was falling. Meanwhile, Alexander I stubbornly did not want to make peace and was ready to make any sacrifices for the sake of victory. Napoleon decided to leave the burned-out capital and move the army closer to the western border. The sudden attack of the Russians on October 6 (18) on Murat's corps, standing in front of the village of Tarutino, finally strengthened him in this decision. The next day, the emperor gave the order to leave Moscow.

66. French retreat

At first, Napoleon intended to retreat along the New Kaluga Road through the provinces that had not yet been devastated. But Kutuzov prevented this. On October 12 (24), a stubborn battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. The city changed hands eight times. In the end, he remained with the French, but Kutuzov was ready to continue the battle. Napoleon realized that he would not enter Kaluga without a new decisive battle, and ordered a retreat along the old ruined road to Smolensk. The country was terribly devastated. In addition to the acute shortage of food, Napoleon's army began to be plagued by severe frosts (winter in 1812 began unusually early). The Cossacks and partisans greatly disturbed the French. The morale of the soldiers fell every day. The retreat turned into a real flight. They no longer paid attention to the wounded and sick. Frosts, hunger and partisans exterminated thousands of soldiers. The entire road was strewn with corpses. Kutuzov attacked the retreating enemies several times and inflicted heavy damage on them. On November 3-6 (15-18), a bloody battle took place near Krasnoye, which cost Napoleon 33 thousand soldiers.

67. Crossing the Berezina. Death of the "Great Army"

From the very beginning of the French retreat, a plan emerged to encircle Napoleon on the banks of the Berezina. Chichagov's army, arriving from the south, captured the crossing near Borisov. Napoleon ordered the construction of two new bridges near the village of Studenki. On November 14-15 (26-27), the most combat-ready units managed to cross to the west bank. On the evening of 16 (28) the crossing was attacked from both sides at once by the approaching Russian army. A terrible panic began. One of the bridges has failed. Many of those who remained on the eastern bank were killed by the Cossacks. Thousands more gave up. In total, Napoleon lost about 35 thousand people captured, wounded, killed, drowned and frozen on the Berezina. However, he himself, his guards and his marshals managed to escape the trap. The transition from the Berezina to the Neman also turned out to be terribly difficult due to severe frosts, hunger and constant attacks by partisans. As a result, on December 14-15 (26-27), no more than 30 thousand virtually unfit soldiers crossed the frozen ice across the Neman - the pitiful remnants of the former half-million-strong “Grand Army”.

68. Kalisz Union Treaty with Prussia. Sixth coalition

The news of the death of Napoleonic army in Russia caused a patriotic upsurge in Germany. On January 25, 1813, King Frederick William III fled from French-occupied Berlin to Breslau and from there secretly sent Field Marshal Knesebeck to Alexander I's headquarters in Kalisz to negotiate an alliance. On February 28, an alliance treaty was concluded, marking the beginning of the Sixth Coalition. On March 27, Frederick William declared war on France. The Prussian army actively participated in the fighting and made a significant contribution to the final victory over Napoleon.

69. Revival of the French army

The Moscow campaign caused irreparable damage to the power of the empire. 100 thousand of Napoleon's soldiers remained captive in Russia. Another 400 thousand - the flower of his army - were killed in battle or died during the retreat. However, Napoleon still had enormous resources and did not consider the war lost. Throughout the first months of 1813, he worked on the creation and organization of a new army. Two hundred thousand people gave him a call for recruits and the National Guard. Another two hundred thousand did not participate in the Russian campaign - they garrisoned in France and Germany. Now they were gathered into hulls, equipped and supplied with everything necessary. By mid-spring, the grandiose work was completed, and Napoleon left for Erfurt.

70. War in Saxony. Truce of Poyschwitz

Meanwhile, the Russians continued to make progress. By the end of January 1813, the entire territory of Poland up to the Vistula was cleared of the French. In February, the Russian army reached the banks of the Oder, and on March 4 captured Berlin. The French retreated beyond the Elbe. But the appearance of Napoleon at the front dramatically changed the situation. On May 2, near Lützen, the Russians and Prussians suffered their first defeat, losing up to 10 thousand people. Wittgenstein, the commander of the Allied army, retreated to the Spree River near Bautzen. After a stubborn battle on May 20-21, he retreated even further east beyond the Lebau River. Both sides were very tired. On June 4, a truce was concluded in Poischwitz by mutual agreement. It lasted until August 10.

71. Expansion of the Sixth Coalition

The allies spent the two-month respite on active diplomatic contacts with all European countries. As a result, the Sixth Coalition expanded and strengthened significantly. In mid-June, Britain pledged to support Russia and Prussia with large subsidies to continue the war. On June 22, the Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte joined the anti-French alliance, having previously bargained for Norway for Sweden (since Denmark maintained an alliance with Napoleon, this claim met no objections). But it was much more important to win over Austria, which had significant military resources. Emperor Franz I did not immediately decide to break with his son-in-law. The final choice in favor of the coalition was made only on August 10. On August 12, Austria officially declared war on France.

72. Battles of Dresden, Katzbach, Kulm and Dennewitz

Shortly after the resumption of hostilities, a major battle took place near Dresden on August 26-27. Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg was defeated and retreated. But on the very day of the Battle of Dresden, the Prussian General Blucher defeated the corps of Marshal MacDonald on the banks of the Katzbach. On August 30, Barclay de Tolly defeated the French near Kulm. Marshal Ney tried to break through to Berlin, but on September 6 he was defeated by Bernadotte in the battle of Dennevitz.

73. Battle of Leipzig

In mid-October, all Allied armies converged on Leipzig. Napoleon decided not to surrender the city without a fight. On October 16, the Allies attacked the French along the entire front. Napoleon stubbornly defended himself and repelled all attacks. Having lost 30 thousand people, neither side achieved success. There was no battle on October 17. The opponents pulled up reserves and changed positions. But if only 15 thousand people approached Napoleon, then two armies arrived to the allies, totaling 110 thousand. Now they had a large numerical superiority over the enemy. On the morning of October 18, the Allies simultaneously launched an attack from the south, north and east, but the main blow was delivered from the south. At the height of the battle, the entire Saxon army (who had unwillingly fought for Napoleon) suddenly went over to the enemy’s side and, deploying their cannons, began to shoot at the French. A little later, the Württemberg and Baden units behaved in the same way. On October 19, the emperor began his retreat. In just three days of fighting, he lost more than 80 thousand people and 325 guns.

74. Expulsion of the French from Germany. Collapse of the Confederation of the Rhine

The defeat at Leipzig deprived Napoleon of his last allies. Saxony capitulated. Württemberg and Bavaria joined the Sixth Coalition. The Confederation of the Rhine collapsed. When the emperor crossed the Rhine on November 2, he had no more than 40 thousand soldiers under arms. In addition to Hamburg and Magdeburg, by the beginning of 1814 the garrisons of all French fortresses in Germany surrendered.

75. Liberation of the Netherlands

Soon after the Battle of Leipzig, the Prussian corps of General Bülow and the Russian corps of Wintzingerode were moved against the French garrisons in Belgium and the Netherlands. On November 24, 1813, the Prussians and Cossacks occupied Amsterdam. At the end of November 1813, Prince Willem of Orange (son of Stadtholder Willem V) landed in Scheveningen. On December 2, he arrived in Amsterdam and was proclaimed here the sovereign sovereign of the Netherlands.

76. Swedish-Danish war. Kiel Peace Treaties

In December 1813, Crown Prince Bernadotte, at the head of Swedish troops, invaded Danish Holstein. On December 7, in the battle of Bornhoved (south of Kiel), Swedish cavalry forced the Danish troops to retreat. On January 14, 1814, the Danish king Frederick VI (1808-1839) concluded peace treaties with Sweden and Great Britain in Kiel. The Anglo-Danish Treaty officially ended the Anglo-Danish War of 1807-1814. According to the Swedish-Danish treaty, Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, and in return received the island of Rügen and the right to Swedish Pomerania. The Norwegians themselves categorically refused to recognize this treaty.

77. Liberation of Spain

In April 1812, Wellington took Badajoz. On July 23, the British and Spanish partisans under the command of Empesinado defeated the French at the Battle of Arapiles (near Salamanca). On August 12, Wellington and Empesinado entered Madrid (in November 1812 the French returned the Spanish capital, but at the beginning of 1813 they were finally expelled from it). On June 21, 1813, the French gave the enemy a stubborn battle near Vittoria and retreated, abandoning all their artillery. By December 1813, the main forces of the French army were driven out of Spain.

78. War in France. Fall of Paris

In January 1814, the Allies crossed the Rhine. Napoleon could oppose the 200 thousand army of his opponents with no more than 70 thousand soldiers. But he fought with desperate tenacity and managed to inflict significant damage on the armies of Schwarzenberg and Blucher in a series of small battles. However, he was no longer able to change the course of the company. At the beginning of March, Napoleon found himself pushed back to Saint-Dizier. Taking advantage of this, the allied armies approached Paris and on March 25 defeated the corps of Marshals Marmont and Mortier, left by the emperor to protect the capital, at Fer-Champenoise. On the morning of March 30, fierce fighting began in the suburbs. They were stopped by Marmont and Mortier, who agreed to surrender the city without a fight. On March 31, Paris capitulated.

79. Abdication of Napoleon and restoration of the Bourbons in France

In early April, the French Senate issued a decree deposing Napoleon and establishing a provisional government. On April 6, the emperor abdicated the throne at Fontainebleau. On the same day, the Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, who was executed in 1793, king. On April 20, Napoleon himself went into honorable exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. On April 24, Louis landed in Calais and went to the castle of Saint-Ouen. Here he negotiated with the Senate delegation and concluded a compromise agreement with it on the transfer of power. They agreed that the Bourbons would reign over France on the basis of Divine right, but they would grant their subjects a Charter (constitution). All executive power was to remain in the hands of the king, and he agreed to share the legislative power with a bicameral parliament. On May 3, Louis made his ceremonial entry into Paris amid the ringing of bells and a cannon salute.

80. War in Lombardy. Murat and Beauharnais

In the summer of 1813, 50 thousand troops entered Italy. Austrian army. She was opposed by 45 thousand. army of the Viceroy of Italy Eugene Beauharnais. However, until the end of the year, no serious events occurred on this front. On January 8, 1814, the Neapolitan king Joachim Murat defected to the Sixth Coalition. On January 19, he occupied Rome, then Florence and Tuscany. However, Murat acted sluggishly, and his entry into the war did little to help the Austrians. Having learned of Napoleon's abdication, Beauharnais wanted to be crowned king of Italy himself. The Italian Senate strongly opposed this. On April 20, an uprising broke out in Milan, raised by liberals and disorganizing the entire defense of the viceroy. On April 24, Beauharnais made peace with the Austrians in Mantua, handed over Northern Italy to them, and he himself left for Bavaria. Lombardy returned to Austrian rule. In May, Murat withdrew his troops back to Naples.

81. Restoration of the Savoy dynasty

In May 1814, the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel I (1802-1821), returned to Turin. The day after the restoration, the king promulgated an edict, which abolished all French institutions and laws, returning noble positions, positions in the army, feudal rights and the payment of tithes.

82. Treaty of Paris 1814

On May 30, 1814, peace was signed between the participants of the Sixth Coalition and Louis XVIII, who had returned from exile, returning France to the borders of 1792. It was specifically stipulated that all the details of the post-war structure of Europe would be discussed two months later at the Congress of Vienna.

83. Swedish-Norwegian war. Agreement at Moss

Sweden's allies in the Sixth Coalition did not recognize Norway's independence. With their approval, on July 30, 1814, Crown Prince Bernadotte began war against the Norwegians. On August 4, the Fredriksten fortress was taken. The Norwegian fleet was blocked in the Oslofjord. This was the end of the fighting. On August 14, in Moss, a truce and a convention were concluded between the Norwegians and the Swedes, according to which Bernadotte promised to respect the Norwegian constitution, and the Norwegians agreed to elect a Swedish king to the Norwegian throne.

84. Opening of the Congress of Vienna

In September 1814, the coalition allies gathered in Vienna to discuss the post-war structure of Europe.

85. Swedish-Norwegian Union

On November 4, 1814, the Storting adopted the amended Norwegian constitution. The king's military and foreign policy powers were limited, but the foreign policy of the united kingdoms fell entirely under the jurisdiction of the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The king received the right to appoint a viceroy to Norway who represented the absent monarch. On the same day, the Storting elected the Swedish king Charles XIII as king of Norway.

86. France after restoration

Few of the French sincerely welcomed the restoration, but the Bourbons did not encounter organized opposition. But the nobles returning from emigration caused strong indignation. Many of them were tough and irreconcilable. The royalists demanded the massive removal of officials and the dissolution of the army, the restoration of “former liberties,” the dissolution of the chambers and the abolition of freedom of the press. They also sought the return of lands sold during the revolution and compensation for the hardships they had suffered. In short, they wanted a return to the regime of 1788. The majority of the nation could not agree to such huge concessions. Passions in society were heating up. The irritation was especially great in the army.

87. "One Hundred Days"

Napoleon was well aware of the changing public mood in France and decided to take advantage of it. On February 26, 1815, he put the soldiers he had (there were about 1000 people in total) on ships, left Elbe and sailed to the shores of France. On March 1, the detachment landed in Juan Bay, from where it moved to Paris. The troops sent against Napoleon, regiment after regiment, went over to the side of the rebels. News came from all sides that cities and entire provinces were joyfully surrendering to the rule of the emperor. On March 19, Louis XVIII fled the capital, and the next day Napoleon solemnly entered Paris. On April 23, a new constitution was published. Compared to the charter of Louis XVIII, it significantly reduced the electoral qualification and gave more liberal freedoms. On May 25, the new chambers opened their meetings, but did not have time to make any important decisions.

88. Murat's campaign. Battle of Tolentin

Having learned about Napoleon's landing, the Neapolitan king Murat declared war on Austria on March 18. With an army of 30 thousand, he moved to the north of Italy, occupied Rome, Bologna and a number of other cities. The decisive battle with the Austrians took place on May 2, 1815 at Tolentino. An uprising broke out in southern Italy in favor of the former king of Naples, Fernando. Murat's power collapsed. On May 19, disguised as a sailor, he fled from Naples to France.

89. Seventh coalition. Battle of Waterloo

All powers participating in the Congress of Vienna immediately formed the Seventh Coalition against Napoleon. But only the armies of Prussia, the Netherlands and Great Britain actually took part in the fighting. On June 12, Napoleon went to the army to begin the last campaign in his life. On June 16, a big battle took place with the Prussians at Ligny. Having lost 20 thousand soldiers, the Prussian commander-in-chief Blucher retreated. He, however, was not defeated. Napoleon ordered Grouchy's 36,000-strong corps to pursue the Prussians, and he himself turned against Wellington's army. The decisive battle took place on June 18, 22 kilometers from Brussels near the village of Waterloo. At that moment Napoleon had 69 thousand soldiers with 243 guns, Wellington had 72 thousand with 159 guns. The fight was extremely stubborn. For a long time, neither side was successful. Around noon, the vanguard of the Prussian army appeared on Napoleon’s right flank - it was Blucher, who had managed to break away from Grusha and was now rushing to help Wellington. The Emperor sent Lobau's corps and the guard against the Prussians, and he himself threw his last reserve at the British - 10 battalions of the old guard. However, he failed to break the enemy's stubbornness. Meanwhile, the Prussian onslaught intensified. Three of their corps arrived in time (about 30 thousand people), and Blucher, one after another, brought them into battle. At about 8 o'clock in the evening, Wellington launched a general offensive, and the Prussians finally overturned Napoleon's right flank. The French retreat soon turned into a rout. The battle, and with it the entire company, were hopelessly lost.

90. Napoleon's second abdication

On June 21, Napoleon returned to Paris. The next day he abdicated the throne. At first, the emperor intended to flee to America, but, realizing that he would never be allowed to escape, on July 15 he himself went to the English ship Bellerophon and surrendered himself into the hands of the victors. It was decided to send him into exile on the remote island of St. Helena. (Napoleon died here in May 1821).

91. Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

The congress in the Austrian capital continued until June 9, 1815, when representatives of the eight leading powers signed the “Final Act of the Congress of Vienna.”

According to its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw formed by Napoleon with Warsaw.

Prussia abandoned Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired North Saxony, a number of areas on the Rhine (Rhine Province), Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.

South Saxony remained under the rule of King Frederick Augustus I.

In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire abolished by Napoleon in 1806, the German Confederation arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria.

Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; The thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburg.

The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (which included the island of Sicily and Southern Italy), the Papal States, the duchies of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Luca and the Kingdom of Sardinia were restored to Italy, to which Genoa was transferred and Savoy and Nice were returned.

Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded to include Wallis, Geneva and Neufchatel (thus, the number of cantons reached 22). There was no central government, so Switzerland again became a union of small sovereign republics.

Denmark lost Norway, which went to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this.

Belgium was annexed to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and came under the rule of the Orange dynasty. Luxembourg also became part of this kingdom on the basis of a personal union.

Great Britain secured the Ionian Islands and Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, the islands of Saint Lucia and Tobago in the West Indies, the Seychelles and Ceylon in the Indian Ocean, and the Cape Colony in Africa; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.

92. "Holy Alliance"

At the end of the negotiations, Emperor Alexander I invited the Prussian king and the Austrian emperor to sign another agreement between themselves, which he called the “Holy Alliance” of sovereigns. Its essence was that the sovereigns mutually pledged to remain in eternal peace and always “give each other assistance, reinforcement and help, and govern their subjects like fathers of families” in the same spirit of brotherhood. The union, according to Alexander, was supposed to be the beginning of a new era for Europe - an era of eternal peace and unity. “There can no longer be English, French, Russian, Austrian policies,” he said later, “there is only one policy - a common one, which must be accepted by peoples and sovereigns for the common happiness...”

93. Treaty of Paris 1815

On November 20, 1815, a peace treaty was signed in Paris between France and the powers of the Seventh Coalition. According to it, France returned to the borders of 1790, and an indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed on it.

Na-po-leo-new wars are usually called the wars waged by France against European countries during the reign of Na-po-leo-na Bo. na-par-ta, that is, in 1799-1815. European countries created anti-Napoleonic coalitions, but their forces were not sufficient to break the power of Napoleonic army. Napoleon won victory after victory. But the invasion of Russia in 1812 changed the situation. Napoleon was expelled from Russia, and the Russian army began a foreign campaign against him, which ended with the Russian invasion of Paris and Napoleon losing the title of emperor.

Rice. 2. British Admiral Horatio Nelson ()

Rice. 3. Battle of Ulm ()

On December 2, 1805, Napoleon won a brilliant victory at Austerlitz(Fig. 4). In addition to Napoleon, the Emperor of Austria and the Russian Emperor Alexander I personally participated in this battle. The defeat of the anti-Napoleonic coalition in central Europe allowed Napoleon to withdraw Austria from the war and focus on other regions of Europe. So, in 1806, he led an active campaign to seize the Kingdom of Naples, which was an ally of Russia and England against Napoleon. Napoleon wanted to place his brother on the throne of Naples Jerome(Fig. 5), and in 1806 he made another of his brothers king of the Netherlands, LouisIBonaparte(Fig. 6).

Rice. 4. Battle of Austerlitz ()

Rice. 5. Jerome Bonaparte ()

Rice. 6. Louis I Bonaparte ()

In 1806, Napoleon managed to radically solve the German problem. He eliminated a state that had existed for almost 1000 years - Holy Roman Empire. An association was created from 16 German states, called Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon himself became the protector (protector) of this Union of the Rhine. In fact, these territories were also brought under his control.

Feature these wars, which in history were called Napoleonic Wars, it was that the composition of France's opponents changed all the time. By the end of 1806, the anti-Napoleonic coalition included completely different states: Russia, England, Prussia and Sweden. Austria and the Kingdom of Naples were no longer in this coalition. In October 1806, the coalition was almost completely defeated. In just two battles, under Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon managed to deal with the Allied troops and force them to sign a peace treaty. At Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon defeated the Prussian troops. Now nothing stopped him from moving further north. Napoleonic troops soon occupied Berlin. Thus, another important rival of Napoleon's in Europe was taken out of the game.

November 21, 1806 Napoleon signed the most important for the history of France decree on the continental blockade(a ban on all countries under his control to trade and generally conduct any business with England). It was England that Napoleon considered his main enemy. In response, England blocked French ports. However, France could not actively resist England's trade with other territories.

Russia remained a rival. At the beginning of 1807, Napoleon managed to defeat Russian troops in two battles in East Prussia.

July 8, 1807 Napoleon and AlexanderIsigned the Peace of Tilsit(Fig. 7). This treaty, concluded on the border of Russia and French-controlled territories, proclaimed good neighborly relations between Russia and France. Russia pledged to join the continental blockade. However, this agreement meant only a temporary mitigation, but not an overcoming of the contradictions between France and Russia.

Rice. 7. Peace of Tilsit 1807 ()

Napoleon had a difficult relationship with By Pope PiusVII(Fig. 8). Napoleon and the Pope had an agreement on the division of powers, but their relationship began to deteriorate. Napoleon considered church property to belong to France. The Pope did not tolerate this and after the coronation of Napoleon in 1805 he returned to Rome. In 1808, Napoleon brought his troops into Rome and deprived the pope of temporal power. In 1809, Pius VII issued a special decree in which he cursed the robbers of church property. However, he did not mention Napoleon in this decree. This epic ended with the Pope being almost forcibly transported to France and forced to live in the Fontainebleau Palace.

Rice. 8. Pope Pius VII ()

As a result of these conquests and Napoleon's diplomatic efforts, by 1812 a huge part of Europe was under his control. Through relatives, military leaders or military conquests, Napoleon subjugated almost all the states of Europe. Only England, Russia, Sweden, Portugal and the Ottoman Empire, as well as Sicily and Sardinia remained outside its zone of influence.

On June 24, 1812, Napoleonic army invaded Russia. The beginning of this campaign was successful for Napoleon. He managed to cross a significant part of the territory of the Russian Empire and even capture Moscow. He could not hold the city. At the end of 1812, Napoleon's army fled from Russia and again entered the territory of Poland and the German states. The Russian command decided to continue the pursuit of Napoleon outside the territory of the Russian Empire. This went down in history as Foreign campaign of the Russian army. He was very successful. Even before the beginning of spring 1813, Russian troops managed to take Berlin.

From October 16 to 19, 1813, the largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic wars took place near Leipzig., known as "battle of the nations"(Fig. 9). The battle received this name due to the fact that almost half a million people took part in it. At the same time, Napoleon had 190 thousand soldiers. His rivals, led by the British and Russians, had approximately 300 thousand soldiers. The numerical superiority was very important. In addition, Napoleon's troops were not as ready as they were in 1805 or 1809. A significant part of the old guard was destroyed, and therefore Napoleon had to take into his army people who did not have serious military training. This battle ended unsuccessfully for Napoleon.

Rice. 9. Battle of Leipzig 1813 ()

The Allies made Napoleon a lucrative offer: they offered him to retain his imperial throne if he agreed to reduce France to the borders of 1792, that is, he had to give up all his conquests. Napoleon indignantly refused this offer.

March 1, 1814 members of the anti-Napoleonic coalition - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia - signed Chaumont Treaty. It prescribed the actions of the parties to eliminate Napoleon's regime. The parties to the treaty pledged to deploy 150 thousand soldiers in order to resolve the French issue once and for all.

Despite the fact that the Treaty of Chaumont was only one in a series of European treaties of the 19th century, it was given a special place in the history of mankind. The Treaty of Chaumont was one of the first treaties aimed not at joint campaigns of conquest (it was not aggressive), but at joint defense. The signatories of the Treaty of Chaumont insisted that the wars that had rocked Europe for 15 years would finally end and the era of the Napoleonic Wars would end.

Almost a month after the signing of this agreement, March 31, 1814, Russian troops entered Paris(Fig. 10). This ended the period of the Napoleonic wars. Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. It seemed that his story was over, but Napoleon tried to return to power in France. You will learn about this in the next lesson.

Rice. 10. Russian troops enter Paris ()

Bibliography

1. Jomini. Political and military life of Napoleon. A book dedicated to Napoleon's military campaigns until 1812

2. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - M.: Mysl, 1989.

3. Noskov V.V., Andreevskaya T.P. General history. 8th grade. - M., 2013.

4. Tarle E.V. "Napoleon". - 1994.

5. Tolstoy L.N. "War and Peace"

6. Chandler D. Military campaigns of Napoleon. - M., 1997.

7. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. Modern History, 1800-1900, 8th grade. - M., 2012.

Homework

1. Name Napoleon’s main opponents during 1805-1814.

2. Which battles from the series of Napoleonic wars left the greatest mark on history? Why are they interesting?

3. Tell us about Russia's participation in the Napoleonic wars.

4. What was the significance of the Chaumont Treaty for European states?

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• Introduction
• 1. The beginning of conquests
• 1.1 Objectives of conquest
• 1.2 Preparing for the trip
• 1.3 Trek to Malta
• 1.4 Trip to Cairo
• 2. Napoleon's campaign in Syria
• 2.1 Preparations for the invasion of Syria
• 2.2 Cairo uprising
• 2.3 Invasion of Syria
• 2.4 Unsuccessful siege of the Acre fortress
• 2.5 Return to Egypt
• 3. Unification against France
• 4. Eighteenth Brumaire 1799
• 4.1 Napoleon's plans
• 4.2 Resumption of Napoleon's dictatorship
• 4.3 Napoleon and Talleyrand
• 4.4 Coup d'etat
• Conclusion
• Literature

Introduction

NAPOLEON I (Napoleon) (Napoleon Bonaparte) (1769-1821), French emperor in 1804-14 and in March - June 1815.

Native of Corsica. He began serving in the army in 1785 with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery; advanced during the French Revolution (reaching the rank of brigadier general) and under the Directory (commander of the army). In November 1799 he carried out a coup d'etat (18 Brumaire), as a result of which he became the first consul, who over time actually concentrated all power in his hands; in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. Established a dictatorial regime. He carried out a number of reforms (the adoption of the civil code, 1804, the founding of the French bank, 1800, etc.). Thanks to the victorious wars, he significantly expanded the territory of the empire and made most of the Western states dependent on France. and Center. Europe Henri Marie Bayle (Stendhal) Life of Napoleon, 2008, p. 225.

The defeat of Napoleonic troops in the war of 1812 against Russia marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon I. The entry of anti-French coalition troops into Paris in 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate the throne. He was exiled to Fr. Elba Bogdanov L.P. “ On the Borodino field"Moscow, Military Publishing House, 1987, p. 64.

He again took the French throne in March 1815. After the defeat at Waterloo, he abdicated the throne for the second time (June 22, 1815). He spent the last years of his life on the island. St. Helena a prisoner of the British.

He came from a poor Corsican noble family of Charles and Letizia Buonaparte (in total there were 5 sons and 3 daughters in the family).

He studied at the Royal Military School in Brienne and at the Paris Military School (1779-85), from which he graduated with the rank of lieutenant.

Napoleon's journalistic works during the Revolution ("Dialogue of Love", "Dialogue sur l"amour", 1791, "Dinner at Beaucaire", "Le Souper de Beaucaire", 1793) indicate that he shared Jacobin sentiments at that time. Appointed chief artillery into the army that was besieging Toulon, occupied by the British, Bonaparte carried out a brilliant military operation. Toulon was taken, and he himself received the rank of brigadier general at the age of 24 (1793). After the Thermidorian coup, Bonaparte distinguished himself in dispersing the royalist rebellion in Paris (1795), and then received the appointment of commander of the Italian army.In the Italian campaign (1796-97), Napoleon's military genius manifested itself in all its splendor.

The Austrian generals were unable to oppose anything to the lightning-fast maneuvers of the French army, poor, poorly equipped, but inspired by revolutionary ideas and led by Bonaparte. She won one victory after another: Montenotto, Lodi, Milan, Castiglione, Arcole, Rivoli.

The Italians enthusiastically greeted the army, which carried the ideals of freedom, equality, and liberated them from Austrian rule. Austria lost all its lands in Northern Italy, where the Cisalpine Republic, allied with France, was created. The name of Bonaparte resounded throughout Europe. After the first victories

Napoleon began to claim an independent role. The Government of the Directory, not without pleasure, sent him on an Egyptian expedition (1798-1799). Its idea was connected with the desire of the French bourgeoisie to compete with the English, which was actively asserting its influence in Asia and North Africa. However, it was not possible to gain a foothold here: while fighting the Turks, the French army did not find support from the local population.

1. The beginning of conquests

1.1 Objectives of conquest

In the historical career of Napoleon, the Egyptian campaign - the second great war that he waged - plays a special role, and in the history of French colonial conquests this attempt also occupies a very exceptional place by Horace Vernet, “The History of Napoleon,” p. 39.

The bourgeoisie of Marseille and the entire south of France has long maintained extensive and extremely beneficial relations for French trade and industry with the countries of the Levant, in other words, with the shores of the Balkan Peninsula, with Syria, with Egypt, with the islands of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, with the Archipelago. And also, for a long time, the constant desire of these sections of the French bourgeoisie was to strengthen the political position of France in these profitable, but rather chaotically governed places, where trade constantly needs the protection and prestige of a force that the merchant can call to his aid in case of need. By the end of the 18th century. Seductive descriptions of the natural resources of Syria and Egypt, where it would be good to establish colonies and trading posts, multiplied. For a long time, French diplomacy had been looking closely at these Levantine countries, which seemed weakly protected by Turkey, which were considered the possessions of the Sultan of Constantinople, the lands of the Ottoman Porte, as the Turkish government was then called. For a long time, too, the French ruling spheres looked at Egypt, washed by both the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, as a point from which they could threaten trade and political competitors in India and Indonesia. The famous philosopher Leibniz once submitted a report to Louis XIV in which he advised the French king to conquer Egypt in order to thereby undermine the position of the Dutch throughout the East. Now, at the end of the 18th century, it was not the Dutch, but the British who were the main enemy, and after all that has been said, it is clear that the leaders of French politics did not at all look at Bonaparte as if he were crazy when he proposed an attack on Egypt, and were not at all surprised when the cold, cautious, skeptical Foreign Minister Talleyrand began to support this plan in the most decisive manner.

Having barely captured Venice, Bonaparte ordered one of his subordinate generals to capture the Ionian Islands and then already spoke about this capture as one of the details in the capture of Egypt. We also have irrefutable data showing that throughout his first Italian campaign he never ceased to return his thoughts to Egypt. Back in August 1797, he wrote from his camp to Paris: “The time is not far off when we will feel that in order to really defeat England, we need to take possession of Egypt.” Throughout the Italian war, in his free moments, he, as always, read a lot and voraciously, and we know that he ordered and read Volney’s book on Egypt and several other works on the same topic. Having captured the Ionian Islands, he valued them so much that, as he wrote to the Directory, if he had to choose, it was better to abandon the newly conquered Italy than to abandon the Ionian Islands. And at the same time, not yet having finally concluded peace with the Austrians, he persistently advised to take possession of the island of Malta. He needed all these island bases in the Mediterranean to organize a future attack on Egypt.

Now, after Campo Formio, when Austria was - temporarily, at least - finished and England remained the main enemy, Bonaparte directed all his efforts to convince the Directory to give him a fleet and army to conquer Egypt. He was always attracted by the East, and at this time of his life his imagination was more occupied with Alexander the Great than with Caesar or Charlemagne or any of the other historical heroes. Somewhat later, already wandering through the Egyptian deserts, he half-jokingly, half-seriously expressed to his companions his regret that he was born too late and could no longer, like Alexander the Great, who also conquered Egypt, immediately proclaim himself a god or the son of God. And quite seriously he later said that Europe is small and that real great things can best be accomplished in the East.

These inner drives of his could not have been more consistent with what was required at that moment in terms of his future political career. In fact: from that very sleepless night in Italy, when he decided that he did not always have to win only for the Directory, he set a course for mastering supreme power. “I no longer know how to obey,” he openly declared at his headquarters when he was negotiating peace with the Austrians, and directives that irritated him came from Paris. But it was still impossible to overthrow the Directory now, that is, in the winter of 1797-1798 or the spring of 1798. The fruit is not yet ripe, and Napoleon at this time, if he had already lost the ability to obey, had not yet lost the ability to patiently wait for the moment. The Directory had not yet compromised itself enough, and he, Bonaparte, had not yet become the favorite and idol of the entire army, although he could already fully rely on the divisions he commanded in Italy. How better can you use the time that still needs to wait, if not by using it for a new conquest, for new brilliant exploits in the land of the pharaohs, the land of the pyramids, following in the footsteps of Alexander the Great, creating a threat to the Indian possessions of hated England?

The support of Talleyrand was extremely valuable to him in this matter. It is hardly possible to talk about Talleyrand’s “convictions” at all. But the opportunity to create a rich, prosperous, economically useful French colony in Egypt was undeniable for Talleyrand. He read a report about this at the Academy even before he learned about Bonaparte's plans. An aristocrat who, for reasons of careerism, entered the service of the republic, Talleyrand in this case was an exponent of the aspirations of a class especially interested in Levantine trade - the French merchants. Now to this was added on the part of Talleyrand the desire to win over Bonaparte, in whom the cunning mind of this diplomat, before anyone else, foresaw the future ruler of France and the most faithful strangler of the Jacobins.

1.2 Preparing for the trip

But Bonaparte and Talleyrand did not have to work very hard to convince the Directory to provide money, soldiers and a fleet for this distant and dangerous enterprise. Firstly (and this is the most important), the Directory, for the already indicated general economic and especially military-political reasons, also saw the benefit and meaning in this conquest, and secondly (this was incomparably less significant), some of the directors (for example , Barras) could indeed see in the planned distant and dangerous expedition some benefit precisely because it is so distant and so dangerous... The sudden colossal and noisy popularity of Bonaparte had long worried them; that he “forgot how to obey,” the Directory knew better than anyone else: after all, Bonaparte concluded the Peace of Campo-Form in the form he wanted, and contrary to some direct desires of the Directory History of France, vol.2. M., 1973, p. 334. At his celebration on December 10, 1797, he behaved not like a young warrior, with excitement of gratitude accepting praise from his fatherland, but like an ancient Roman emperor, for whom the obsequious Senate arranges a triumph after a successful war: he was cold, almost gloomy, taciturn, accepted everything that happened as something proper and commonplace. In a word, all his tricks also suggested restless thoughts. Let him go to Egypt: if he returns, that’s fine, if he doesn’t return, well, Barras and his comrades were already ready in advance to bear this loss without complaint. The expedition was decided. General Bonaparte was appointed commander-in-chief. This happened on March 5, 1798.

Immediately, the most vigorous activity of the commander-in-chief began in preparing the expedition, inspecting the ships, and selecting soldiers for the expeditionary force Carl Von Clausewitz “1799”, 2001; Carl Von Clausewitz "1806", 2000; Carl Von Clausewitz "1712", 1998. Here, even more than at the beginning of the Italian campaign, Napoleon’s ability was revealed, when undertaking the most grandiose and most difficult undertakings, to vigilantly follow all the little details and at the same time not get confused or lost in them - at the same time see the trees, the forest, and almost every branch on every tree. Inspecting the shores and fleet, forming his expeditionary force, closely following all the fluctuations in world politics and all the rumors about the movements of Nelson’s squadron, which could sink him during the move, and while cruising off the French coast, Bonaparte at the same time almost alone selected soldiers for Egypt with whom he fought in Italy. He knew an enormous number of soldiers individually; his exceptional memory always and subsequently amazed those around him. He knew that this soldier was brave and steadfast, but a drunkard, but this one was very smart and quick-witted, but he quickly got tired because he had a hernia. He not only subsequently chose marshals well, but he also chose corporals well and successfully selected ordinary soldiers where it was needed. And for the Egyptian campaign, for the war under the scorching sun, at 50° or more heat, for crossing the hot, vast sandy deserts without water or shade, people who were selected for endurance were needed. On May 19, 1798, everything was ready: Bonaparte's fleet sailed from Toulon. About 350 large and small ships and barges, which housed an army of 30 thousand people with artillery, had to pass along almost the entire Mediterranean Sea and avoid meeting Nelson's squadron, which would shoot and sink them.

All of Europe knew that some kind of sea expedition was being prepared; England, moreover, knew very well that all the southern French ports were in full swing, that troops were constantly arriving there, that General Bonaparte would be at the head of the expedition, and that this appointment alone showed the importance of the matter. But where will the expedition go? Bonaparte very cleverly spread the rumor that he intended to pass through Gibraltar, round Spain and then try to land in Ireland. This rumor reached Nelson and deceived him: he was guarding Napoleon at Gibraltar when the French fleet left the harbor and went directly east to Malta. New history of Europe and America: the first period, ed. Yurovskoy E.E. and Krivoguza I.M., M., 2008.

1.3 Trek to Malta

Malta belonged to the 16th century. Order of the Knights of Malta. General Bonaparte approached the island, demanded and obtained its surrender, declared it the possession of the French Republic and, after a few days' stop, sailed on to Egypt. Malta was about halfway there; and he approached her on June 10, and on the 19th he already continued his journey. Accompanied by a favorable wind, already on June 30 Bonaparte and his army landed on the coast of Egypt near the city of Alexandria. Immediately he began to disembark. The situation was dangerous: he learned in Alexandria immediately upon arrival that exactly 48 hours before his appearance an English squadron approached Alexandria and asked about Bonaparte (about whom, of course, they had not the slightest idea). It turned out that Nelson, having heard about the capture of Malta by the French and convinced that Bonaparte had deceived him, rushed with full sail to Egypt to prevent the landing and sink the French while still at sea. But it was his excessive haste and the great speed of the British fleet that harmed him; Having correctly at first realized that Bonaparte had gone from Malta to Egypt, he was again confused when he was told in Alexandria that they had never heard of any Bonaparte there, and then Nelson rushed to Constantinople, deciding that the French had nowhere else to sail, since they are not in Egypt.

This chain of Nelson's mistakes and accidents saved the French expedition. Nelson could return every minute, so the landing was carried out with great speed. At one o'clock in the morning on July 2, the troops were on land.

Finding himself in his element with his loyal soldiers, Bonaparte was no longer afraid of anything. He immediately moved his army to Alexandria (he landed in the fishing village of Marabou, a few kilometers from the city).

Egypt was considered the possession of the Turkish Sultan, but in fact it was owned and dominated by the commanding elite of the well-armed feudal cavalry. The cavalry was called Mamelukes, and their commanders, the owners of the best lands in Egypt, were called Mameluke beys. This military-feudal aristocracy paid a certain tribute to the Sultan of Constantinople, recognized his supremacy, but in fact Tarle E.V. depended very little on him. Napoleon, 1997, p. 82.

The main population - the Arabs - was engaged in some trade (and among them there were wealthy and even rich merchants), some in crafts, some in caravan transport, some in working on the land. In the worst, most driven state were the Copts, the remnants of the former, pre-Arab tribes who lived in the country. They bore the general name "fellahi" (peasants). But impoverished peasants of Arab origin were also called fellahs. They worked as laborers, were laborers, camel drivers, and some were small itinerant traders.

Although the country was considered to belong to the Sultan, Bonaparte, who arrived to take it into his own hands, always tried to pretend that he was not at war with the Turkish Sultan - on the contrary, he had deep peace and friendship with the Sultan, and he came to free the Arabs ( he did not speak about the Copts) from oppression by the Mameluke beys, who oppress the population with their extortions and cruelties. And when he moved towards Alexandria and, after several hours of skirmish, took it and entered this vast and then quite rich city, then, repeating his fiction regarding liberation from the Mamelukes, he immediately began to establish French rule for a long time. He assured the Arabs in every possible way of his respect for the Koran and the Mohammedan religion, but recommended complete submission, threatening drastic measures otherwise.

After several days in Alexandria, Bonaparte moved south, deeper into the desert. His troops suffered from a lack of water: the population of the villages left their homes in panic and, escaping, poisoned and polluted the wells. The Mamelukes slowly retreated, occasionally disturbing the French, and then, on their magnificent horses, hid from pursuit Manfred A.Z. "Napoleon Bonaparte" Moscow, publishing house “Mysl”, 1971, p. 71.

On July 20, 1798, in sight of the pyramids, Bonaparte finally met the main forces of the Mamelukes. "Soldiers! Forty centuries are looking at you today from the heights of these pyramids!" - said Napoleon, addressing his army before the start of the battle.

It was between the village of Embabe and the pyramids. The Mamelukes were completely defeated; they abandoned part of their artillery (40 cannons) and fled to the south. Several thousand people remained on the battlefield.

1.4 Trip to Cairo

Now, after this victory, Bonaparte went to Cairo, the second of the two large cities of Egypt. The frightened population greeted the conqueror in silence; Not only had it not heard anything about Bonaparte, but even now it still had no idea who he was, why he had come and with whom he was fighting.

In Cairo, which was richer than Alexandria, Bonaparte found a lot of food supplies. The army rested after difficult marches. True, the unpleasant thing was that the residents were already too scared, and General Bonaparte even issued a special appeal, translated into the local dialect, calling for calm. But since at the same time he ordered, as a punitive measure, to plunder and burn the village of Alkam, not far from Cairo, suspecting its inhabitants of killing several soldiers, the intimidation of the Arabs intensified even more Pimenova E.K. “Napoleon 1” (Historical and biographical sketch), 2009, p. 243.

In such cases, Napoleon did not hesitate to give these orders in Italy, and in Egypt, and everywhere where he fought subsequently, and this, too, was completely calculated for him: his army had to see how terribly their commander punished everyone and everyone who dares to raise his hand against a French soldier.

Having settled in Cairo, he began to organize management. Without touching on details that would be inappropriate here, I will note only the most characteristic features: firstly, power was to be concentrated in every city, in every village in the hands of the French garrison commander; secondly, this chief must have an advisory “sofa” of the most eminent and wealthy local citizens appointed by him; thirdly, the Mohammedan religion must enjoy complete respect, and mosques and clergy must be inviolable; fourthly, in Cairo, under the commander-in-chief himself, there should also be a large advisory body consisting of representatives not only of the city of Cairo) but also of the provinces. The collection of taxes and taxes had to be streamlined, delivery in kind had to be organized in such a way that the country would support the French army at its own expense. Local commanders with their advisory bodies had to organize good police order and protect trade and private property. All land taxes levied by the Mameluke beys are abolished. The estates of the rebellious and war-continuing beys who fled to the south are taken into the French treasury.

Bonaparte, here, as in Italy, sought to put an end to feudal relations, which was especially convenient, since it was the Mamelukes who supported military resistance, and to rely on the Arab bourgeoisie and Arab landowners; He did not at all take the fellahs exploited by the Arab bourgeoisie under protection.

All this was supposed to consolidate the foundations of an unconditional military dictatorship, centralized in his hands and ensuring this bourgeois order he created. Finally, the religious tolerance and respect for the Koran that he persistently proclaimed was, by the way, such an extraordinary innovation that the Russian “Holy” Synod, as we know, put forward a bold thesis in the spring of 1807 about the identity of Napoleon with the “forerunner” of the Antichrist, in the form of one of arguments hinted at Bonaparte’s behavior in Egypt: patronage of Mohammedanism, etc.

2. Napoleon's campaign in Syria

2.1 Preparations for the invasion of Syria

Having imposed a new political regime in the conquered country, Bonaparte began to prepare for a further campaign - for the invasion from Egypt into Syria Fedorov K.G. “History of the State and Law of Foreign Countries”, Len. 1977, p. 301. He decided not to take the scientists he took with him from France to Syria, but to leave them in Egypt. Bonaparte never showed particularly deep respect for the brilliant research of his learned contemporaries, but he was perfectly aware of the enormous benefits a scientist could bring if he was directed to carry out specific tasks put forward by military, political or economic circumstances. From this point of view, he treated his scientific companions, whom he took with him on this expedition, with great sympathy and attention. Even his famous command before the start of one battle with the Mamelukes: “Donkeys and scientists to the middle!” - meant precisely the desire to protect, first of all, along with the most precious pack animals on the campaign, also representatives of science; The somewhat unexpected juxtaposition of words resulted solely from the usual military laconicism and the necessary brevity of the command phrase. It must be said that Bonaparte’s campaign played a colossal role in the history of Egyptology. Scientists came with him, who for the first time, one might say, discovered this most ancient country of human civilization for science.

Even before the Syrian campaign, Bonaparte was repeatedly convinced that not all Arabs were delighted with the “liberation from the tyranny of the Mamelukes,” which the French conqueror constantly spoke about in his appeals. The French had enough food, having installed a properly functioning, but difficult for the population, machine of requisitions and taxation. But less specie was found. Other means were used to obtain it.

2.2 Cairo uprising

General Kleber, left by Bonaparte as governor-general of Alexandria, arrested the former sheikh of this city and the great rich man Sidi Mohammed El-Koraim on charges of treason, although he had no evidence for this. El-Koraim was sent under escort to Cairo, where he was told that if he wanted to save his head, he must give 300 thousand francs in gold. El-Koraim, to his misfortune, turned out to be a fatalist: “If I am destined to die now, then nothing will save me and I will give away, which means my piastres are useless; if I am not destined to die, then why should I give them away?” General Bonaparte ordered his head to be cut off and carried through all the streets of Cairo with the inscription: “This is how all traitors and perjurers will be punished.” The money hidden by the executed sheikh was never found, despite all the searches. But several rich Arabs gave everything that was demanded of them, and shortly after the execution of El-Koraim, about 4 million francs were collected in this way, which entered the treasury of the French army. People were treated more simply, and even more so without any special ceremony.

At the end of October 1798, things came to an attempt at an uprising in Cairo itself. Several members of the occupying army were openly attacked and killed, and for three days the rebels defended themselves in several quarters. The pacification was merciless. In addition to the mass of Arabs and fellahs killed during the suppression of the uprising, executions took place for several days in a row after the pacification; executed from 12 to 30 people per day.

The Cairo uprising had an echo in neighboring villages. General Bonaparte, having learned about the first of these uprisings, ordered his adjutant Croisier to go there, surround the entire tribe, kill all the men without exception, and bring the women and children to Cairo, and burn the very houses where this tribe lived. This was done exactly. Many children and women, who were driven on foot, died along the way, and a few hours after this punitive expedition, donkeys loaded with sacks appeared in the main square of Cairo. The bags were opened, and the heads of the executed men of the offending tribe rolled across the square.

These brutal measures, judging by eyewitnesses, terribly terrorized the population for a time.

Meanwhile, Bonaparte had to reckon with two extremely dangerous circumstances for him. Firstly, a long time ago (just a month after the army landed in Egypt) Admiral Nelson finally found the French squadron, which was still stationed in Abukir, attacked it and completely destroyed it. French Admiral Brieuil died in the battle. Thus, the army that fought in Egypt found itself cut off from France for a long time. Secondly, the Turkish government decided in no way to support the fiction spread by Bonaparte that he was not at all fighting with the Ottoman Porte, but was only punishing the Mamelukes for the insults inflicted on French merchants and for the oppression of the Arabs. The Turkish army was sent to Syria.

2.3 Invasion of Syria

Bonaparte moved from Egypt to Syria, towards the Turks. He considered cruelty in Egypt the best method to fully ensure the rear during a new long campaign.

The trip to Syria was terribly difficult, especially due to the lack of water. City after city, starting from El-Arish, surrendered to Bonaparte. Having crossed the Isthmus of Suez, he moved to Jaffa and on March 4, 1799, besieged it. The city did not give up. Bonaparte ordered to announce to the population of Jaffa that if the city was taken by storm, then all the inhabitants would be exterminated and no prisoners would be taken. Jaffa did not give up. On March 6, an assault followed, and, having burst into the city, the soldiers began to exterminate literally everyone who came to hand. Houses and shops were given over to plunder. Some time later, when the beatings and plunder were already coming to an end, General Bonaparte was reported that about 4 thousand still surviving Turkish soldiers, fully armed, mostly Arnauts and Albanians by origin, locked themselves in one vast place, fenced off at all ends, and that when the French officers arrived and demanded surrender, these soldiers announced that they would surrender only if they were promised life, otherwise they would defend themselves to the last drop of blood. The French officers promised them captivity, and the Turks left their fortifications and surrendered their weapons. The French locked the prisoners in barns. General Bonaparte was very angry about all this. He believed that there was absolutely no need to promise life to the Turks. “What should I do with them now?” he shouted. “Where do I have supplies to feed them?” There were neither ships to send them by sea from Jaffa to Egypt, nor enough free troops to escort 4 thousand selected, strong soldiers through all the Syrian and Egyptian deserts to Alexandria or Cairo. But Napoleon did not immediately settle on his terrible decision... He hesitated and was lost in thought for three days. However, on the fourth day after the surrender, he gave the order to shoot them all. 4 thousand prisoners were taken to the seashore and here every one of them was shot. “I don’t wish anyone to go through what we, who saw this execution, went through,” says one of the French officers.

2.4 Unsuccessful siege of the Acre fortress

Immediately after this, Bonaparte moved on to the fortress of Acre, or, as the French more often call it, Saint-Jean d'Acre. The Turks called it Akka. There was no need to hesitate much: the plague was hot on the heels of the French army, and to remain in Jaffa, where and in the houses, and on the streets, and on the roofs, and in the cellars, and in the gardens, and in the vegetable gardens, the untidy corpses of the slaughtered population were rotting; it was, from a hygienic point of view, extremely dangerous.

The siege of Acre lasted exactly two months and ended in failure. Bonaparte had no siege artillery; the defense was led by the Englishman Sydney Smith; The British brought supplies and weapons from the sea; the Turkish garrison was large. It was necessary, after several failed attacks, to lift the siege on May 20, 1799, during which the French lost 3 thousand people. True, the besieged lost even more. After this, the French went back to Egypt.

It should be noted here that Napoleon always (until the end of his days) attached some special, fatal significance to this failure. The Acre fortress was the last, most eastern point of the earth that he was destined to reach. He intended to stay in Egypt for a long time, ordered his engineers to examine the ancient traces of attempts to dig the Suez Canal and draw up a plan for future work on this part. We know that he wrote to the Sultan of Mysore (in the south of India), who was fighting against the British just then, promising help. He had plans for relations and agreements with the Persian Shah. Resistance in Acre, restless rumors about uprisings of Syrian villages left in the rear, between El-Arish and Acre, and most importantly, the impossibility of stretching the communication line so terribly without new reinforcements - all this put an end to the dream of establishing his rule in Syria Babkin V.I. People's militia in the Patriotic War of 1812. M., Sotsekgiz, 1962, p. 65.

2.5 Return to Egypt

The return journey was even more difficult than the advance, because it was already the end of May and June was approaching, when the terrible heat in these places intensified to an unbearable degree. Bonaparte did not stop long to punish the Syrian villages that he found necessary to punish, just as cruelly as he always did.

It is interesting to note that during this difficult return journey from Syria to Egypt, the commander-in-chief shared with the army all the difficulties of this campaign, without giving himself or his senior commanders any concession. The plague was pressing more and more Bloodless L.G. Partisans in the Patriotic War of 1812 - questions of history, 1972, No. 1,2. . The plague-stricken were left behind, but the wounded and those sick from the plague were taken further with them. Bonaparte ordered everyone to dismount, and horses, all carts and carriages to be provided for the sick and wounded. When, after this order, his chief stable manager, convinced that an exception should be made for the commander-in-chief, asked which horse to leave him, Bonaparte flew into a rage, hit the questioner in the face with a whip and shouted: “Everyone go on foot! I’ll go first! What, you Don't you know the order? Get out!"

For this and similar actions, the soldiers loved Napoleon more and in his old age remembered Napoleon more often than for all his victories and conquests. He knew this very well and never hesitated in such cases; and none of those who observed it could subsequently decide what and when was a direct movement here, and what was feigned and deliberate. It could be both at the same time, as happens with great actors. And Napoleon was truly great in acting, although at the dawn of his activity, in Toulon, in Italy, in Egypt, this quality of his began to be revealed only to a very few, only to the most insightful of those closest to him. And among his relatives there were few insightful ones at that time.

On June 14, 1799, Bonaparte's army returned to Cairo. But it was not for long that if not the entire army, then its commander-in-chief was destined to remain in the country he had conquered and subjugated, V.V. Vereshchagin. "1812", 2008, p. 94.

Before Bonaparte had time to rest in Cairo, news came that near Aboukir, where Nelson had destroyed French transports a year before, a Turkish army had landed, sent to liberate Egypt from the French invasion. Now he set out with troops from Cairo and headed north to the Nile Delta. On July 25, he attacked the Turkish army and defeated it. Almost all 15 thousand Turks were killed on the spot. Napoleon ordered not to take prisoners, but to exterminate everyone. “This battle is one of the most beautiful I have ever seen: not a single person was saved from the entire enemy army that landed,” Napoleon solemnly wrote. The French conquest seemed to be completely consolidated for the coming years. An insignificant part of the Turks escaped to English ships. The sea was still in the power of the British, but Egypt was stronger than ever in the hands of Bonaparte Davydov Denis Vasilievich “Diary of Partisan Actions” “Did frost destroy the French army in 1812?”, 2008.

3. Unification against France

And then a sudden, unexpected event occurred. For many months cut off from all communication with Europe, Bonaparte learned amazing news from a newspaper that accidentally fell into his hands: he learned that while he was conquering Egypt, Austria, England, Russia and the Kingdom of Naples resumed the war against France, that Suvorov appeared in Italy, defeated the French, destroyed the Cisalpine Republic, moves towards the Alps, threatens to invade France; in France itself - robberies, unrest, complete disorder; The Directory is hated by the majority, weak and confused. "Scoundrels! Italy is lost! All the fruits of my victories are lost! I need to go!" - he said as soon as he read the newspaper Zhilin P.A. “The Death of Napoleonic Army”. Moscow, publishing house “Nauka”, 1974, p. 81.

The decision was made immediately. He handed over the supreme command of the army to General Kleber, ordered four ships to be equipped hastily and in the strictest secrecy, put about 500 people selected by him on them and on August 23, 1799, left for France, leaving Kleber a large, well-supplied army, operating properly (by himself created) administrative and tax apparatus and the silent, submissive, intimidated population of the huge conquered country Tarle E.V. “ 1812 Moscow, Press Publishing House, 2004, p. 129.

4. Eighteenth Brumaire 1799

4.1 Napoleon's plans

Napoleon sailed from Egypt with the firm and unshakable intention of overthrowing the Directory and seizing supreme power in the state. The enterprise was desperate. To attack the republic, to “put an end to the revolution” that began with the capture of the Bastille more than ten years ago, to do all this, even with Toulon, Vendémières, Italy and Egypt in its past, presented a number of terrible dangers. And these dangers began as soon as Napoleon left the shores of the Egypt he had conquered. During the 47 days of travel to France, meetings with the British were close and, it seemed, inevitable, and in these terrible moments, according to those who observed, only Bonaparte remained calm and gave all the necessary orders with usual energy. On the morning of October 8, 1799, Napoleon's ships landed in a bay at Cape Frejus, on the southern coast of France. In order to understand what happened in the 30 days between October 8, 1799, when Bonaparte set foot on French soil, and November 9, when he became the ruler of France, it is necessary to recall in a few words the situation in which the country was at that moment , when she learned that the conqueror of Egypt had returned.

After the coup of the 18th Fructidor of the V year (1797) and the arrest of Pichegru, the director of the Republic Barras and his comrades seemed to be able to count on the forces that supported them on that day:

1) to the new proprietary strata of the city and village, who became rich in the process of selling off national property, church and emigrant lands, the overwhelming majority were afraid of the return of the Bourbons, but dreamed of establishing a strong police order and a strong central government,

2) on the army, on the mass of soldiers, closely connected with the working peasantry, who hated the very idea of ​​​​the return of the old dynasty and feudal monarchy.

But in the two years that elapsed between the 18th Fructidor of the year V (1797) and the autumn of 1799, it was discovered that the Directory had lost all class support. The big bourgeoisie dreamed of a dictator, a restorer of trade, a man who would ensure the development of industry and bring victorious peace and strong internal “order” to France; the petty and middle bourgeoisie - and above all the peasantry who bought the land and became rich - wanted the same; the dictator could be anyone, but not Bourbon Orlik O.V. “The Thunderstorm of the Twelfth Year...”. M., 1987. .

Parisian workers after their mass disarmament and the fierce terror directed at them in the prairie of 1795, after the arrest in 1796 and execution of Babeuf and the exile of the Babouvist in 1797, after the entire policy of the Directory, aimed entirely at protecting the interests of the big bourgeoisie, especially speculators and embezzlers - these workers, continuing to starve, suffer from unemployment and high prices, cursing buyers and speculators, of course, were not in the least inclined to defend the Directory from anyone. As for the migrant workers, day laborers from the villages, there really was only one slogan for them: “We want a regime in which they eat” (un regime ou l"on mange). Directory police agents often overheard this phrase on the outskirts of Paris and reported to his worried superiors.

During the years of its rule, the Directory irrefutably proved that it was not able to create that durable bourgeois system that would be finally codified and put into full effect. The Directory has recently shown its weakness in other ways. The enthusiasm of Lyon industrialists and silk manufacturers about Bonaparte's conquest of Italy, with its enormous production of raw silk, gave way to disappointment and despondency when, in Bonaparte's absence, Suvorov appeared and in 1799 took Italy away from the French. The same disappointment seized other categories of the French bourgeoisie when they saw in 1799 that it was becoming increasingly difficult for France to fight against the powerful European coalition, that the millions of gold that Bonaparte sent to Paris from Italy in 1796-1797 were mostly stolen officials and speculators robbing the treasury with the connivance of the same Directory Garin F.A. "The Expulsion of Napoleon" Moscow worker 1948, p. 96. The terrible defeat inflicted by Suvorov on the French in Italy at Novi, the death of the French commander-in-chief Joubert in this battle, the defection of all Italian “allies” of France, the threat to the French borders - all this finally turned the bourgeois masses of the city and countryside away from the Directory.

There is nothing to say about the army. There they had long remembered Bonaparte, who had gone to Egypt, the soldiers openly complained that they were starving due to general theft, and repeated that they were being sent to slaughter in vain. The royalist movement in the Vendée, which had always been smoldering like coal under the ashes, suddenly revived. The leaders of the Chouans, Georges Cadoudal, Frottet, Laroche-Jacquelin, again raised Brittany and Normandy. In some places the royalists became so bold that they sometimes shouted in the street: “Long live Suvorov! Down with the republic!” Thousands of young people who had evaded military service and were therefore forced to leave their homes wandered around the country. The cost of living grew every day as a result of the general disorder of finance, trade and industry, as a result of disorderly and continuous requisitions, from which large speculators and buyers made large profits. Even when in the fall of 1799 Massena defeated the Russian army of Korsakov in Switzerland near Zurich, and another Russian army (Suvorov) was recalled by Paul, these successes did little to help the Directory and did not restore its prestige.

If anyone wanted to express in the briefest words the state of affairs in France in the middle of 1799, he could stop at the following formula: in the propertied classes, the overwhelming majority considered the Directory from their point of view useless and ineffective, and many - definitely harmful; for the poor masses both in the city and in the countryside, the Directory represented the regime of rich thieves and speculators, the regime of luxury and contentment for embezzlers, and the regime of hopeless hunger and oppression for workers, farm laborers, and the poor consumer; finally, from the point of view of the soldiers of the army, the Directory was a bunch of suspicious people who left the army without boots and without bread and who in a few months gave to the enemy what Bonaparte had won in a dozen victorious battles. The ground was ready for dictatorship.

4.2 Resumption of Napoleon's dictatorship

On October 13 (21 Vendemiers), 1799, the Directory notified the Council of Five Hundred - “with pleasure,” it said in this paper - that General Bonaparte had returned to France and landed at Fréjus. Amid a frantic storm of applause, joyful cries, inarticulate cries of delight, the entire meeting of people's representatives stood up, and the deputies shouted greetings for a long time while standing. The meeting was interrupted. As soon as the deputies went out into the streets and spread the news they had received, the capital, according to witnesses, seemed to suddenly go crazy with joy: in theaters, in salons, and on the central streets, the name of Bonaparte was tirelessly repeated. One after another, news arrived in Paris about the unprecedented welcome that the general was receiving from the population of the south and center in all the cities through which he passed on his way to Paris. Peasants left the villages, city deputations one after another introduced themselves to Bonaparte, greeting him as the best general of the republic. Not only he himself, but no one at all could have even imagined such a sudden, grandiose, meaningful manifestation. One peculiarity was striking: in Paris, the troops of the capital's garrison took to the streets as soon as the news of Bonaparte's landing was received, and marched through the city with music. And it was impossible to fully understand exactly who gave the order about this. And was such an order given at all, or did the matter happen without an order?

On October 16 (24 Vendémières) General Bonaparte arrived in Paris. The Directory remained to exist for another three weeks after this arrival, but neither Barras, who was awaiting political death, nor those directors who helped Bonaparte bury the directorial regime, did not even suspect at that moment that the end was so close and that the time frame needed to be calculated before the establishment of a military dictatorship no longer for weeks, but for days, and soon not for days, but for hours.

Bonaparte's journey through France from Fréjus to Paris has already clearly shown that they see him as a “savior.” There were solemn meetings, enthusiastic speeches, illuminations, demonstrations, delegations. Peasants and townspeople from the provinces came out to meet him. The officers and soldiers enthusiastically greeted their commander. All these phenomena and all these people, who, as if in a kaleidoscope, replaced Bonaparte while he was traveling to Paris, did not yet give him complete confidence in immediate success. It was important what the capital said. The garrison of Paris greeted with delight the commander who returned with fresh laurels as the conqueror of Egypt, the conqueror of the Mamelukes, the conqueror of the Turkish army, who put an end to the Turks just before leaving Egypt. In the highest circles, Bonaparte immediately felt strong support. In the first days, it also became clear that the overwhelming mass of the bourgeoisie, especially among the new owners, was clearly hostile to the Directory, did not trust its capacity either in domestic or foreign policy, was openly afraid of the activity of the royalists, but was even more in awe of the unrest in the suburbs, where the working masses had just been dealt a new blow by the Directory: on August 13, at the request of the bankers, Sieyès liquidated the last stronghold of the Jacobins - the Union of Friends of Liberty and Equality, which numbered up to 5,000 members and had 250 mandates in both councils. That danger from the right and the left, and most importantly, from the left, can best be prevented by Bonaparte - the bourgeoisie and its leaders immediately and firmly believed in this. Moreover, it was quite unexpectedly discovered that in the five-member Directory itself there was no one who would be capable and had the opportunity to provide serious resistance, even if Bonaparte decided on an immediate coup. The insignificant Goye, Moulin, Roger-Ducos did not count at all. They were promoted to director precisely because no one ever suspected they had the ability to produce any independent thought and the determination to open their mouths in those cases when it seemed unnecessary to Sieyès or Barras.

There were only two directors to reckon with: Sieyes and Barras. Sieyès, who made a splash at the beginning of the revolution with his famous pamphlet on what the third estate should be, was and remained the representative and ideologist of the French big bourgeoisie; together with her, he reluctantly endured the revolutionary Jacobin dictatorship; together with her, he warmly approved the overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship of 9 Thermidor and the Prairial terror of 1795 against the rebellious plebeian masses and, together with the same class, sought the strengthening of the bourgeois order, considering the directorial regime absolutely unsuitable for this , although he himself was one of the five directors. He looked at Bonaparte’s return with hope, but was curiously mistaken about the general’s personality. “We need a sword,” he said, naively imagining that Bonaparte would be only a sword, but a builder of a new regime it will be he, Sieyès. We will now see what came out of this deplorable (for Sieyès) assumption.

As for Barras, he was a man of a completely different type, a different biography, a different mentality than Sieyès. He, of course, was smarter than Sieyès simply because he was not such a pompous and self-confident political reasoner as Sieyès was, who was not just an egoist, but was, so to speak, respectfully in love with himself. Brave, depraved, skeptical, wide in revelry, vices, crimes, count and officer before the revolution, Montagnard during the revolution, one of the leaders of parliamentary intrigue, who created the external frame of the events of 9 Thermidor, the central figure of the Thermidorian reaction, responsible author of the events of 18 Fructidor 1797. - Barras always went where there was power, where it was possible to share power and take advantage of the material benefits that it gives. But unlike, for example, Talleyrand, he knew how to put his life on the line, as he put it before the 9th of Thermidor, organizing an attack on Robespierre; knew how to go directly to the enemy, as he went against the royalists on the 13th of Vendémière, 1795, or on the 18th of Fructidor, 1797. He did not sit like a hidden mouse in the underground under Robespierre, like Sieyès, who answered the question of what he did during the years of terror: “I remained alive." Barras burned his ships long ago. He knew how he was hated by both the royalists and the Jacobins, and gave no quarter to either one, realizing that he would receive no mercy from either one or the other if they won. He was very willing to help Bonaparte if he returned from Egypt, unfortunately, healthy and unharmed. He himself visited Bonaparte in those hot pre-Brummer days, sent him to him for negotiations and kept trying to secure a higher and warmer place for himself in the future system.

But very soon Napoleon decided that Barras was impossible. Not that there was no need: there were not so many smart, brave, subtle, cunning politicians, and even in such a high position, and it would be a pity to neglect them, but Barras made himself impossible. He was not only hated, but also despised. Shameless theft, open bribery, dark scams with suppliers and speculators, frantic and continuous carousing in front of the fiercely starving plebeian masses - all this made the name of Barras a symbol of rottenness, depravity, and decay of the Directory regime. Sieyès, on the contrary, was favored by Bonaparte from the very beginning. Sieyès had a better reputation, and he himself, being a director, could, when he went over to Bonaparte’s side, give the whole matter a seemingly “legal appearance.” Napoleon, like Barraza, did not disappoint him for the time being, but saved him, especially since Sieyès was supposed to be needed for some time after the coup.

4.3 Napoleon and Talleyrand

During these same days, two people came to the general who were destined to associate their names with his career: Talleyrand and Fouche. Bonaparte knew Talleyrand for a long time, and knew him as a thief, a bribe-taker, an unscrupulous, but also an extremely intelligent careerist. That Talleyrand sells on occasion to everyone he can sell and for whom there are buyers, Bonaparte had no doubt about this, but he clearly saw that Talleyrand would no longer sell him to the directors, but, on the contrary, would sell him the Directory, which he held almost until very recently. served as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Talleyrand gave him many valuable instructions and greatly hurried the matter. The general fully believed in the intelligence and insight of this politician, and the decisiveness with which Talleyrand offered him his services was a good omen for Bonaparte. This time Talleyrand directly and openly went into the service of Bonaparte. Fouche did the same. He was Minister of Police under the Directory, and he intended to remain Minister of Police under Bonaparte. He had - Napoleon knew this - one valuable feature: very afraid for himself in the event of the Bourbon restoration, the former Jacobin and terrorist who voted the death sentence for Louis XVI, Fouche, seemed to give sufficient guarantees that he would not sell the new ruler in the name of the Bourbons. Fouché's services were accepted. Major financiers and suppliers openly offered him money. The banker Collot immediately brought him 500 thousand francs, and the future ruler had nothing decisively against this yet, but he took the money especially willingly - it would be useful in such a difficult enterprise.

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