Introduction

Scientific revolution of the XIX century. were preceded by outstanding discoveries in science of the 17th-18th centuries. and its formation as a social institution. The emergence of experimental knowledge and a rationalistic type of thinking contributed to its subsequent ordering in the 19th century. It becomes a scientific system that studies the processes of origin and development of objects of phenomena, organisms and their connections.

In the XIX century. there is a differentiation of certain branches of scientific knowledge into narrower special branches (experimental psychology, sociology, and cultural studies are distinguished into independent sciences) and at the same time - the integration of sciences (it was at this time that astrophysics, biochemistry, physical chemistry, geochemistry appeared), and a new branch of knowledge - technical sciences. Over the course of a century, an unprecedented number of discoveries were made, and on the basis of the accumulated experimental, analytical material, generalizing theories were developed.

Fundamentally new was the approval of the idea of ​​development and the principle of interconnection in nature, i.e. to the emergence of the principles of dialectics in scientific research. A scientific experiment in mechanics led to the establishment of a connection between science and production. Engineering and technology were developed on the basis of mechanics, physics and mathematics. And finally, the classical ideas of mankind about time and space were destroyed by the theory of relativity of Albert Einstein.

Thus, the 19th century laid the foundations for the development of science in the 20th century and created the preconditions for many future inventions and technological innovations that we use today. Scientific discoveries were made in many areas and had a great influence on further development.

Technological progress advanced uncontrollably. To whom are we grateful for the comfortable conditions in which modern mankind now lives?

Purpose of the work: to consider the general characteristics of the XIX century, as well as some scientific discoveries and their impact on the economic world development.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. XIX century - the era of scientific revolutions

As already noted, in the industrial civilization that took root in Europe in the 19th century, scientific and technological progress began to be considered the main value. And this is no coincidence. As P. Sorokin noted, “only one of the nineteenth century. brought discoveries and inventions more than all previous centuries put together. "The century was the embodiment of unheard-of technological progress, scientific and technical discoveries were made that led to a change in the way of life of people: its beginning was marked by the development of the power of steam, the creation of steam machines and engines, which allowed to carry out an industrial revolution, to move from manufacturing to industrial, factory production. The countries of Europe and North America were covered by a network of railways, which in turn contributed to the development of industry and trade. The production of the first synthetic materials, artificial fibers, began.

Scientific discoveries in physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geology, medicine followed one after another. Following the discovery of the phenomenon of the electromagnetic arc by Michael Faraday, James Maxwell undertakes the study of electromagnetic fields, develops the electromagnetic theory of light. Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Maria Sklodowska-Curie, studying the phenomenon of radioactivity, questioned the previous understanding of the law of conservation of energy.

Physical science has gone from the atomic theory of matter by John Dalton to the discovery of the complex structure of the atom. After the discovery of J.J. Thompson in 1897 the first elementary particle of the electron was followed by the planetary theories of the structure of the atom by Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr. Interdisciplinary research is developing - physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical pharmacology.

If the periodic law of chemical elements formulated in 1869 by Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev established the relationship between their atomic weights, then the discovery of the internal structure of the atom revealed the relationship between the ordinal number of the element in the periodic system and the number of electrons in the layers of the atomic shell.

In biology, theories of the cellular structure of all organisms by T. Schwan, the genetic inheritance of Gregor Johann Mendel, appear, based on which August Weismann and Thomas Morgan created the foundations of genetics. Based on research in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity, I.P. Pavlov developed the theory of conditioned reflexes.

A true revolution in science was made by the works of the great scientist-naturalist Charles Darwin "The Origin of Species" and "The Origin of Man", which interpreted the emergence of the world and man differently from Christian teachings.

Advances in biology and chemistry have given a powerful impetus to the development of medicine. The French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur developed a method of preventive vaccinations against rabies and other infectious diseases, a mechanism for sterilization and pasteurization of various products, and laid the foundation for the doctrine of immunity. German microbiologist Robert Koch and his students discovered the causative agents of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria and other diseases, and created drugs against them. New drugs and instruments have appeared in the arsenal of doctors. Doctors began to use aspirin and pyramidon, the stethoscope was invented, X-rays were discovered. The century - the "machine age" - and this is absolutely correct, because it was then that the production of machines began with the help of machines themselves. From the mechanical spinning wheel "Jenny" mankind has stepped to the first modern loom made of metal, and from it - to Jaccard's automatic loom. v. called the "era of steel" - it is then that the level of steel production becomes an indicator of the economic strength of the country. Iron and steel are replacing wood.

If the XVII-XVIII centuries. were the era of windmills, then from the end of the 18th century. the era of steam begins. In 1784, J. Watt invented the steam engine. And already in 1803. the first car with a steam engine appears. On August 17, 1807, a test trip of the Fulton steamer "Clermont" was made, and in 1814 the steam locomotive of J. Stepfenson was born.

The revolution in means of transport was complemented by the development of maritime communications. Thanks to the steam, sailing ceased to depend on the strength of the wind, and the overcoming of the oceanic space was accomplished in an increasingly shorter time. At the end of the XIX century. the automobile of G. Daimler and K. Benz appears, having a highly efficient engine running on liquid fuel, and in 1903 - the first aircraft of the brothers U, and O. Wright. At the same time, the construction and improvement of roads, bridges, tunnels, canals (Suez Canal, 1859-1869) proceeded - this is the age of electricity. After the discovery of V.V. Petrov, the phenomenon of an electric arc S. Morse invented the electric telegraph, and A. Bell - the telephone, and T. Edison - the phonograph. A.S. radio receivers appear. Popov and G. Marconi, cinematography of the Lumiere brothers. Electric lighting of cities became an important innovation, the horse tram was replaced by a tram. In 1863, the first underground railway “Metropolitan” appeared, and by the end of the century the metro was already functioning in London, Paris, New York, Budapest, Paris and other cities. Human life has changed radically. Thanks to discoveries and inventions, technical dominance over space, time and matter has grown unchallenged. An unprecedented spatio-temporal growth of civilization began - new territories and new layers of the past entered the human spiritual world.

Cognition has expanded its boundaries in depth and breadth. At the same time, new ways of overcoming time and space arose - new technology with its speeds, means of communication contributed to the fact that a person was able to accommodate a larger segment of the cosmic, any point of the planet. The universe seemed to be simultaneously narrowing and expanding, everyone came into contact with everyone. The world has qualitatively changed.

In the next chapter, we will expand on some of the scientific discoveries of the 19th century.

.1 James Clark Maxwell (1831-1879)

The most important factor in changing the face of the world is the expansion of the horizons of scientific knowledge. A key feature in the development of science of this period of time is the widespread use of electricity in all branches of production. And people could no longer refuse to use electricity, having experienced its significant advantages. At this time, scientists began to closely study electromagnetic waves and their effect on various materials.

A great achievement of science in the XIX century. was put forward by the English scientist D. Maxwell, the electromagnetic theory of light (1865), which generalized the research and theoretical conclusions of many physicists from different countries in the fields of electromagnetism, thermodynamics and optics.

Maxwell is well known for formulating four equations that were the expression of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism. These two areas were extensively explored prior to Maxwell over the years, and it was well known that they were interconnected. However, although various laws of electricity had already been discovered and they were true for specific conditions, there was no general and uniform theory before Maxwell.

D. Maxwell came to the idea of ​​the unity and relationship of electric and magnetic fields, created on this basis the theory of the electromagnetic field, according to which, having arisen at any point in space, the electromagnetic field propagates in it with a speed equal to the speed of light. Thus, he established a connection between light phenomena and electromagnetism.

In his four equations, short but rather complex, Maxwell was able to accurately describe the behavior and interaction of electric and magnetic fields. Thus, he transformed this complex phenomenon into a single, understandable theory. Maxwell's equations have found wide application in the last century in both theoretical and applied sciences. The main advantage of Maxwell's equations was that they are general equations used in all circumstances. All previously known laws of electricity and magnetism can be derived from Maxwell's equations, as well as many other previously unknown results.

The most important of these results were derived by Maxwell himself. From his equations, we can conclude that there is a periodic oscillation of the electromagnetic field. Having begun, such oscillations, called electromagnetic waves, will propagate in space. From his equations, Maxwell was able to deduce that the speed of such electromagnetic waves would be approximately 300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second. Maxwell saw that this speed was equal to the speed of light. From this, he made the correct conclusion that light itself consists of electromagnetic waves. Thus, Maxwell's equations are not only the basic laws of electricity and magnetism, they are the basic laws of optics. Indeed, all the previously known laws of optics can be deduced from his equations, just like previously unknown results and relationships. Visible light is not only a possible form of electromagnetic radiation.

Maxwell's equations showed that there may be other electromagnetic waves that differ from visible light in wavelength and frequency. These theoretical conclusions were subsequently vividly confirmed by Heinrich Hertz, who was able to both create and straighten invisible waves, the existence of which Maxwell predicted.

For the first time in practice, the German physicist G. Hertz succeeded in observing the propagation of electromagnetic waves (1883). He also determined that the speed of their propagation was 300 thousand km / sec. Paradoxically, he believed that electromagnetic waves would have no practical application. And after a few years, on the basis of this discovery, A.S. Popov used them to transmit the world's first radio message. It consisted of only two words: "Heinrich Hertz".

Today we are using them with success for television. X-rays, gamma rays, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays are another example of electromagnetic radiation. All this can be studied through Maxwell's equations. Although Maxwell achieved recognition mainly for his spectacular contributions to electromagnetism and optics, he also made contributions to other fields of science, including astronomical theory and thermodynamics (the study of heat). The subject of his particular interest was the kinetic theory of gases. Maxwell realized that not all gas molecules move at the same speed. Some molecules move more slowly, others move faster, and some move at very high speeds. Maxwell derived a formula that determines which particle of a given gas molecule will move at any given speed. This formula, called the "Maxwell distribution", is widely used in scientific equations and finds significant application in many areas of physics.

This invention became the basis for modern technologies for wireless transmission of information, radio and television, including all types of mobile communications, which are based on the principle of data transmission by means of electromagnetic waves. After the experimental confirmation of the reality of the electromagnetic field, a fundamental scientific discovery was made: there are various types of matter, and each of them has its own laws that are not reducible to the laws of Newtonian mechanics.

The American physicist R. Feynman excellently spoke about Maxwell's role in the development of science: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, ten thousand years later), the most significant event of the nineteenth century will undoubtedly be Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the backdrop of this important scientific discovery, the American civil war in the same decade will look like a provincial incident. "

2.2 Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882)

century became the time of the triumph of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin was one of the first to realize and clearly demonstrated that all types of living organisms evolve in time from common ancestors.

Generalizing the ideas of J. Lamarck about the dependence of the evolution of organisms on their adaptability to the environment, C. Lyell on the formation of the earth's layers depending on the activity of the forces of nature, the cellular theory of T. Schwann and M. Schleiden and his own long-term research, Darwin published in 1859 the work " The Origin of Species "(full title:" The Origin of Species by the Method of Natural Selection, or the Survival of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life "), in which he outlined the conclusions that plant and animal species are not constant, but changeable, that the modern animal world was formed as a result of long development process.

The main driving force behind evolution Darwin named natural selection and indefinite variability. True, about the reasons for the variability of species, Darwin, according to him, put forward only a "quick-witted" assumption. These reasons were solved by the Austrian researcher G. Mendel, who formulated the laws of heredity.

Darwin cites a lot of evidence of an increase in the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions, due to natural selection. This, for example, is widespread among animals of a protective color, which makes them less noticeable in their habitats: moths have a body color corresponding to the surface on which they spend the day; females of openly nesting birds (wood grouse, black grouse, hazel grouse) have a plumage color that is almost indistinguishable from the surrounding background; in the Far North, many animals are painted white (partridges, bears), etc. Many animals that have special protective devices against eating them by other animals, in addition, have warning coloration (for example, poisonous or inedible species). In some animals, menacing coloration in the form of bright repelling spots is common (for example, in a hamster, the abdomen is brightly colored). Many animals that do not have special means of protection, in terms of body shape and color, imitate protected ones (mimicry). Many of them have needles, spines, chitinous cover, carapace, shell, scales, etc. In animals, various kinds of instincts play an important role as adaptations (the instinct of caring for offspring, instincts associated with obtaining food, etc.). A wide variety of adaptations to cross-pollination, dispersion of fruits and seeds are widespread among plants. All these adaptations could appear only as a result of natural selection, ensuring the existence of the species under certain conditions.

At the same time, Darwin notes that the adaptability of organisms to the environment (their expediency), along with perfection, is of a relative nature. This means that as conditions change, useful traits may be useless or even harmful. For example, in aquatic plants that absorb water and substances dissolved in it by the entire surface of the body, the root system is poorly developed, but the surface of the shoot and the airborne tissue - aerenchyma, formed by the system of intercellular spaces that permeate the entire body of the plant are well developed. This increases the surface of contact with the environment, providing better gas exchange, and allows plants to more fully utilize light and absorb carbon dioxide. But when the reservoir dries up, such plants will die very quickly. All their adaptive features that ensure their prosperity in the aquatic environment are useless outside of it.

Another important result of evolution is the increase in the variety of types of natural groups, i.e. systematic differentiation of species. The general increase in the variety of organic forms greatly complicates the relationships that arise between organisms in nature. Therefore, in the course of historical development, the greatest advantage is gained, as a rule, by highly organized forms, as a result of which the progressive development of the organic world on Earth from lower to higher forms is carried out. At the same time, stating the fact of progressive evolution, Darwin does not deny morphophysiological regression (i.e. the evolution of forms, the adaptation of which to environmental conditions goes through simplification of organization), as well as such a direction of evolution that does not cause either complication or simplification of the organization of living forms. ... The combination of various directions of evolution leads to the simultaneous existence of forms that differ in terms of the level of organization.

The essence of evolutionary doctrine consists in the following basic provisions:

Arising naturally, organic forms slowly and gradually transformed and improved in accordance with the surrounding conditions.

The transformation of species in nature is based on such properties of organisms as heredity and variability, as well as natural selection constantly occurring in nature. Natural selection is carried out through the complex interaction of organisms with each other and with factors of inanimate nature; this relationship Darwin called the struggle for existence.

The result of evolution is the adaptability of organisms to their habitat and the diversity of species in nature.

Darwin's concept of evolution is reduced to a number of logical, experimentally verified and confirmed by a huge amount of factual data:

Within each species of living organisms, there is a huge range of individual hereditary variability in morphological, physiological, behavioral and any other characteristics. This variability can be continuous, quantitative, or discontinuous, qualitative, but it always exists.

All living organisms multiply exponentially.

Vital resources for any kind of living organisms are limited, and therefore there must be a struggle for existence either between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species, or with natural conditions. In the concept of "struggle for existence" Darwin included not only the actual struggle of an individual for life, but also the struggle for success in reproduction.

Under the conditions of the struggle for existence, the most adapted individuals survive and give offspring, having those deviations that accidentally turned out to be adaptive to the given environmental conditions. This is a fundamentally important point in Darwin's argumentation. Deviations do not arise directionally - in response to the action of the environment, but randomly. Few of them prove to be useful in specific conditions. The descendants of the surviving individual who inherit the beneficial deviation that allowed their ancestor to survive are more adapted to the given environment than other members of the population.

Survival and preferential reproduction of adapted individuals Darwin called natural selection.

Natural selection of individual isolated varieties in different conditions of existence gradually leads to divergence (divergence) of the characteristics of these varieties and, ultimately, to speciation.

On these postulates, flawless from the point of view of logic and supported by a huge number of facts, the modern theory of evolution was created.

The main result of evolution is the improvement of the adaptability of organisms to living conditions, which entails the improvement of their organization. As a result of the action of natural selection, individuals with traits useful for their prosperity are preserved.

Darwin's main merit is that he established the mechanism of evolution that explains both the diversity of living beings and their amazing expediency, adaptation to the conditions of existence. This mechanism is a gradual natural selection of random undirected hereditary changes.

In 1871 his book "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" was published, where he put forward and substantiated a hypothesis about the origin of man from ape-like ancestors. Darwin's teachings made a stunning impression on the public mind.

The existence of evolution has been recognized by most scientists. Darwin's evolutionary theory is a holistic teaching about the historical development of the organic world. It covers a wide range of problems, the most important of which are evidence of evolution, identification of the driving forces of evolution, determination of the paths and patterns of the evolutionary process, etc. Darwin's ideas and discoveries in a revised form form the foundation of the modern synthetic theory of evolution and form the basis of biology as providing a logical explanation of biodiversity ...

2.3 Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)

scientific discovery maxwell darwin laplace

Laplace's scientific work was extremely varied. Laplace's scientific heritage belongs to the field of celestial mechanics, mathematics and mathematical physics.

He penned fundamental works on differential equations, in particular on the integration by the method of "cascades" of partial differential equations. He introduced spherical functions into mathematics, which are used to find a general solution to the Laplace equation and to solve problems of mathematical physics for areas bounded by spherical surfaces.

In Laplace algebra, there is an important theorem on the representation of determinants by the sum of products of complementary minors.

He proved the theorem on the deviation of the frequency of occurrence of an event from its probability, which is now called the Moivre-Laplace limit theorem.

Developed the theory of errors. He introduced the theorems of addition and multiplication of probabilities, the concept of generating functions and mathematical expectation.

Most of Laplace's research relates to celestial mechanics. He tried to explain all the visible motions of celestial bodies, relying on Newton's law of universal gravitation, and he succeeded. Laplace proved the stability of the solar system; showed that the average speed of the moon depends on the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, which, in turn, changes under the influence of the attraction of the planets. Laplace proved that this movement is long-period and that after a while the Moon will move slowly. He determined the magnitude of the compression of the Earth at the poles. In 1780. Laplace proposed a new way to calculate the orbits of celestial bodies. I came to the conclusion that Saturn's ring cannot be solid, otherwise it would be unstable. Predicted the contraction of Saturn at the poles; established the laws of motion of the satellites of Jupiter. The results were published by Laplace in his classic five-volume work "A Treatise on Celestial Mechanics" (1798-1825)

In physics, Laplace derived a formula for the speed of sound propagation in air, and created an ice colorimeter. Received a barometric formula for calculating the change in air density with height, taking into account its humidity, performed a number of works on the theory of capillarity and established a law (bearing his name) that allows you to determine the value of capillary pressure and thereby write down the condition of mechanical equilibrium for mobile (liquid) interfaces ...

Scientists have recently had the opportunity to reassess Laplace's insight. The "Statement of the World System" provides evidence that "the force of attraction of a celestial body could be so great that no light would come from it." This will happen if the body has the same density as the Earth, and the diameter is 250 times the diameter of the Sun. In other words, the first cosmic speed in the gravitational field of this body exceeds the speed of light. Thus, Laplace was the first to pay attention to the possibility of the existence of "black holes". Laplace's life largely reflects the complexity of the era in which he lived. However, throughout his life he maintained loyalty to science, under no circumstances interrupting his studies. The role of Laplace in the history of science can hardly be overestimated. “... Laplace was born in order to deepen everything, to push all boundaries in order to solve what seemed insoluble. He would have finished the science of heaven if this science could be finished. "

2.4 John Dalton (1766 - 1844)

Science of the XIX century. marked by a revolution in chemistry. In the development of chemistry in the 19th century, the problem of the chemical composition of substances was the main one, since at this time, manufacturing was replaced by machine production, and for the latter, a wide raw material base was needed. In industrial production, the processing of huge masses of substances of plant and animal origin began to prevail. Substances with different (often opposite) qualities began to participate in the production, consisting of only a few chemical elements of organic origin: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus. Scientists began to look for an explanation of this wide variety of organic compounds, which arose on the basis of a limited number of chemical elements, not only in the composition, but also in the structure of the compound of these elements. In addition, numerous laboratory experiments and experiments have convincingly proved that the properties of substances obtained as a result of chemical reactions depend not only on the elements, but also on the relationship and interaction of elements during the reaction. Therefore, chemists began to turn more and more to the problem of the structure of matter and the interaction of the constituent elements of a substance.

The first scientist who made significant progress in a new direction in the development of chemistry was the English chemist John Dalton, who went down in the history of chemistry as the discoverer of the law of multiple ratios and the creator of the foundations of atomic theory. J. Dalton showed that each element of nature is a set of atoms that are strictly identical to each other and have a single atomic weight. Thanks to this theory, the ideas of the systemic development of processes penetrated into chemistry.

He received all his theoretical conclusions on the basis of his own discovery that two elements can be combined with each other in different ratios, but each new combination of elements is a new connection. Like the ancient atomists, Dalton proceeded from the concept of the corpuscular structure of matter, but, based on the concept of a chemical element formulated by Lavoisier, he believed that all atoms of each individual element are the same and are characterized by the fact that they have a certain weight, which he called atomic weight. Thus, each element has its own atomic weight, but this weight is relative, since the absolute weight of atoms cannot be determined. As a conventional unit of the atomic weight of elements, Dalton takes the atomic weight of the lightest of all elements, hydrogen, and compares the weight of other elements with it. For experimental confirmation of this idea, it is necessary for the element to combine with hydrogen, forming a certain compound. If this does not happen, then it is necessary that this element is combined with another element, which is known to be capable of combining with hydrogen. Knowing the weight of this other element relative to hydrogen, one can always find the ratio of the weight of this element to the unit weight of hydrogen.

Reasoning in this way, Dalton compiled the first table of the relative atomic weights of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorus, taking the atomic mass of hydrogen as a unit. This table was Dalton's most important work.

Dalton presented his theory so convincingly that in twenty years it was accepted by most scientists. Moreover, chemists began to follow the program proposed in the book: precise determination of relative atomic weights, analysis of chemical compounds by weight, determination of the exact combinations of atoms that make up each type of molecule. The success of this program has, of course, been overwhelming. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the hypothesis of the existence of atoms. This is a basic concept in modern chemistry. In addition, it has become an invaluable prologue to many areas of modern physics.

Conclusion

In this work, a general description of the 19th century is briefly given, as well as some of the scientific discoveries of the period under consideration are considered in more detail.

The rapid development of science in the 19th century led to a significant number of discoveries of a fundamental nature, which laid the foundation for new directions of scientific and technological progress, and which led to a change in the way of life of all mankind.

J. Maxwell is an English physicist, the creator of classical electrodynamics, who formulated four equations, which were the expression of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism.

J. Dalton - English chemist and naturalist, introduced the theory of the atom into science. In doing so, he provided a key idea that has since sparked tremendous advances in chemistry.

Pierre S. Laplace - French mathematician, physicist and astronomer, known for his work in the field of celestial mechanics, differential equations, one of the founders of the theory of probability. Laplace's achievements in the field of pure and applied mathematics, and especially in astronomy, are enormous: he improved almost all departments of these sciences.

The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, is a holistic teaching about the historical development of the organic world, which covers a wide range of problems, the most important of which are evidence of evolution, identification of the driving forces of evolution, determination of the paths and patterns of the evolutionary process, etc.

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.Elyashevich M.A. Maxwell's contribution to the development of molecular physics and statistical methods / M.A. Elyashevich, T.S. Protko. // Phys. - 1981. - S. 381-423.

.History of world culture (world civilizations). European culture of the XIX century / Ed. G.V. Brawler. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2004 .-- 544 p.

.Culturology / Ed. G.V. Brawler. - M .: Alfa-M, 2003 .-- 432 p.

American motion picture inventor Thomas Edison, who was able to make this form of entertainment technically feasible

For the competition, sponsored by Scientific American in 1913, entrants were required to write an essay on the 10 greatest inventions "of our time" (from 1888 to 1913), and the inventions had to be patentable and dated when they were "industrialized."

Basically, this assignment was based on historical perception. We think innovation is more remarkable when we see the change that it brings. In 2016, we may not give much credit to Nicola Tesla or Thomas Edison, as we are accustomed to using electricity in all its forms, but at the same time, we are impressed by the social changes that have entailed. popularization of the Internet. 100 years ago, people probably would not have understood what this was all about.

Below are excerpts from the first and second prize-winning essays along with a statistical count of all submissions. First place went to William I. Wyman, who worked for the US Patent Office in Washington DC, thanks to which he was well aware of scientific and technological progress.

Essay by William Wyman

1. The electric furnace of 1889 was "the only means that allowed the production of carborundum" (the hardest artificial material at that time). It also transformed aluminum from "just a valuable metal to a very useful metal" (reducing its cost by 98%) and "radically changed the metal industry."

2. Steam turbine invented by Charles Parsons, which began mass production over the next 10 years. The turbine significantly improved the power supply system on ships, and was later used to support the operation of generators that produce electricity.

The turbine, invented by Charles Parsons, powered ships. With the right amount, they set in motion generators and produced energy.

3. Gasoline car. In the 19th century, many inventors worked on the creation of a "self-propelled" car. Wyman mentioned the 1889 Gottleib Daimler engine in his essay: “A hundred years of persistent but unsuccessful desire to create a practically self-propelled machine proves that any invention that first fits into the stated requirements is immediately successful. Such success has come to the Daimler engine. "

4. Movies. Entertainment will always make a huge difference, and "the moving picture has changed the way many people live." The technical trailblazer Wyman cited was Thomas Edison.

5. Airplane. For "fulfilling a centuries-old dream," Wyman honored the invention of the Wright brothers, but at the same time focused on its use for military purposes and questioned the general usefulness of flying technology: "In commercial terms, the aircraft is the least profitable invention of all considered."

Orville Wright conducts a demonstration flight at Fort Meer in 1908 and fulfills the requirements of the American army

Wilbur Wright

6. Wireless telegraphy. Various systems have been used to transfer information between people for centuries, perhaps even millennia. In the United States, telegraph signals have become much faster thanks to Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail. Wireless telegraphy, invented by Guglielmo Marconi, later evolved into radio and thereby freed information from cables.

7. Cyanide process. Sounds toxic, right? This process appeared on this list for only one reason: it was carried out to extract gold from ore. "Gold is the lifeblood of trade", in 1913 international trade relations and national currencies were based on it.

8. Nikola Tesla's induction motor. “This landmark invention is largely responsible for the ubiquitous use of electricity in modern industry,” writes Weiman. Before there was electricity in residential buildings, Tesla's AC machine generated 90% of the electricity used in manufacturing.

9. Linotype. This machine allowed publishers - mostly newspaper publishers - to compose and cast text much faster and cheaper. This technology was as advanced as the printing press was considered in its time in relation to the earlier handwritten scrolls. It is possible that soon we will stop using paper for writing and reading, and the history of printing will be forgotten.

10. Electric welding process from Elihu Thomson. In the era of industrialization, electric welding allowed faster production rates and better, more sophisticated machines for the manufacturing process.

Electric welding, invented by Eliu Thomson, significantly reduced the production cost of complex welded equipment

Essay by George Doe

The second best essay, by George M. Dowe, also from Washington, turned out to be more philosophical. He divided all inventions into three subsidiary sectors: manufacturing, transport and communications:

1. Electrical fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. With the depletion of natural sources of fertilization in the 19th century, artificial feeding ensured the further expansion of agriculture.

2. Preservation of sugar-containing plants. George W. McMullen of Chicago is credited with discovering a method for drying sugar cane and sugar beets for transport. Sugar production became more efficient and very soon supplies increased significantly.

3. High-speed steel alloys. By adding tungsten to steel, "tools made in this way could cut at tremendous speeds without compromising hardening or cutting edge." The increase in the efficiency of cutting machines has produced "nothing less than a revolution"

4. Lamp with tungsten filament. Another achievement in chemistry: after tungsten replaced carbon in the filament, the light bulb is considered "improved". As of 2016, they are being phased out worldwide in favor of compact fluorescent lamps, which are 4 times more efficient.

5. Airplane. Although it was not yet widely used for transportation in 1913, "Samuel Langley and the Wright brothers should receive major awards for their contribution to the development of mechanical flight."

6. Steam turbine. As in the previous list, the turbine deserves praise not only for "using steam as the primary motive power", but also for its use in "power generation".

7. Internal combustion engine. From a transportation standpoint, Dow is most praised for "Daimler, Ford and Durie." Gottlieb Daimler is a well-known pioneer of motor vehicles. Henry Ford began production of the Model T in 1908, which remained very popular until 1913. Charles Duryea created one of the earliest commercially successful gasoline vehicles after 1896.

8. The pneumatic tire, which was originally invented by Robert William Thomson, a railway engineer. "What the track has done for the locomotive, the pneumatic tire has done for vehicles not tied to railroad tracks." The essay, however, goes out to John Dunlop and William C. Bartlet, each of whom have made significant contributions to the development of automobile and bicycle tires.

9. Wireless communication. Dow praised Marconi for making wireless "commercially viable." The essay also left a commentary on the development of the World Wide Web, arguing that wireless was "designed primarily to meet the needs of commerce, but has also contributed to social interaction along the way."

10. Typesetting machines. The giant rotary press could churn out enormous volumes of printed material. The weak link in the production chain was the assembly of the printing plates. Linotype and monotype helped to get rid of this disadvantage.

All submitted essays were collected and analyzed to compile a list of inventions that were perceived as the most significant. The wireless telegraph was in almost every text. "Airplane" came in second, although it was considered important only because of the potential of flying technology. Here are the rest of the results:

Question 01. Explain the reasons for the rapid development of physics and other natural sciences in the 19th century.

Answer. Discoveries in the field of natural sciences immediately found practical embodiment in new inventions, which immediately brought fame (as well as money), which stimulated scientists to new discoveries and young people to engage in science. Research began to require investments, however, thanks to discoveries, both business and the state were interested in sponsoring the natural sciences.

Question 02. Fill in the notebook table "The most important scientific discoveries in the XIX - early XX century." Columns of the table: scientific field, year of discovery, name of the scientist, content and meaning of the discovery.

Question 03. Prepare a message about any opening. Also use the text of the document. What qualities do you think a scientist should have?

Answer. Charles Darwin went to his discovery for many years. He traveled on a ship of the British Navy, on which he traveled around the world and made many observations as a naturalist, because the voyage lasted five years. For example, in the Galapagos Islands (in the Pacific Ocean), he studied finches. He noticed that with approximately the same body shape, many species of finches have different shapes and sizes of beaks. He suggested that they descended from the same ancestor, but over time, development has divided them into different species. When he returned, he began to study the selection of domestic animals, on the basis of which new breeds appear. He was especially interested in pigeons. People received the most different colors of these birds, choosing from the offspring only individuals with the qualities they needed. Darwin suggested that nature does the same: it selects the qualities it needs and allows organisms with only these qualities to leave offspring. He consolidated his conclusions on the example of plants. Thus was born Darwin's evolutionary theory, which he published in 1859. But that was not the end of the story. Further, Darwin had to endure the most severe controversy with opponents of his theory until the end of his life.

Charles Darwin knew how to collect material, draw conclusions from it that others had not thought of, knew how to confirm these conclusions. He had the hard work to develop his theory, the determination to publish it, the perseverance to defend it, and a sufficient lifetime to manifest the above qualities. This, in my opinion, is what the pioneers need (although, I believe, there is no universal set of qualities characteristic of all of them).

Question 04. Describe the success of medicine at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Think about the reasons for these successes.

Answer. Medicine in the 19th century developed vaccines against many diseases, found out the connection between public hygiene and epidemics. All this made it possible to fight much better against many mass diseases, laid the foundations for a complete or almost complete victory over them in the twentieth century. In surgery, anesthesia was opened, an X-ray machine appeared. Thanks to these and many other discoveries, wounds previously considered fatal were now treatable. In many ways, the reasons for these successes lie in interaction with other natural sciences. The emergence of microbiology and the vaccine against rabies would not have been possible without the development of microscopes (respectively, optics), the X-ray apparatus was named after the physicist because it would not have been possible without its discovery, the work of chemists made it possible to create new drugs, etc.

The 19th century became revolutionary for the evolution of technology. So it was during this period that mechanisms were invented that radically changed the entire course of human development. Most of these technologies, although they have been noticeably improved, are still in use today.
What technical inventions of the XIX century changed the whole course of human development? Before you now will be a list of important technical innovations that have made the technical revolution. This list will not be rankings, all technical inventions are of equal importance to the global technical revolution.

Technical inventions XIX.
1. The invention of the stethoscope. In 1816, the French doctor Rene Laennec invented the first stethoscope - a medical device for listening to the sounds of internal organs (lungs, heart, bronchi, intestines). Thanks to him, doctors can, for example, hear wheezing in the lungs, thereby diagnosing a number of dangerous diseases. This device has undergone significant changes, but the mechanism has remained the same and is an important diagnostic tool today.
2. The invention of the lighter and matches. In 1823, the German chemist Johann Debereiner invented the first lighter - an effective means of producing fire. Now the fire could be lit in any conditions, which played an important role in the lives of people, including the military. And in 1827, the first matches were invented by the inventor John Walker, based on the friction mechanism.
3. The invention of Portland cement. In 1824, a type of cement was developed by William Aspdin, which is used today in almost all countries of the world.
4. Internal combustion engine. In 1824, Samuel Brown invented the first engine that had an internal combustion system. This important invention gave rise to the development of the automotive industry, shipbuilding and many other mechanisms powered by an engine. As a result of evolution, this invention has undergone many changes, but the system of work remains the same.
5. The photo. In 1826, the first photograph was invented by the French inventor Joseph Niepce, based on the method of fixing the image. This invention gave an important impetus to the further development of photography.
6 ... Electric generator. The first electric power generator was invented in 1831 by Michael Faraday. This device is capable of converting all types of energy into electrical energy.
7. Morse code. In 1838, the famous coding method called Morse code was created by the American inventor Samuel Morse. Until now, this method is used in the maritime art of war and in navigation in general.
8 ... Anesthesia. In 1842, there was absolutely one of the most important medical discoveries - the invention of anesthesia. Dr. Crawford Long is considered its inventor. This allowed surgeons to carry out operations on an unconscious patient, which significantly increased the survival rate, since before that they operated on patients in full consciousness, from which they died from pain shock.
9. Syringe. In 1853, there was another completely important medical discovery - the invention of the syringe we are used to. Its inventor is the French doctor Charles-Gabriel Pravas.
10. Oil and gas drilling rig. The first oil and gas drilling rig was invented in 1859 by Edwin Drake. This invention marked the beginning of the extraction of oil and natural gas, which led to a revolution in the fuel industry.
11. Gatling gun. In 1862, the American inventor Richard Gatling, famous at that time, created the world's first machine gun - the Gatling gun. The invention of the machine gun revolutionized the craft of war and in the following years, this weapon became one of the deadliest on the battlefield.
12. Dynamite. In 1866, the famous dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel. This mixture completely changed the foundations of mining and also laid the foundation for modern explosives.
13 ... Jeans. In 1873, the American industrialist Levey Strauss invented the first jeans - trousers made of incredibly durable fabric, which have become one of the main types of clothing for more than a century and a half.
14 ... Automobile. The world's first car was patented by George Selden in 1879.
15. Gasoline internal combustion engine. In 1886, one of the greatest discoveries of mankind was made - the gasoline internal combustion engine. This device is used on an incredible scale all over the world.
16. Electric welding. In 1888, a Russian engineer invented the well-known and used all over the world electric welding, which allows connecting various iron parts in a short time.
17. Radio transmitter. In 1893, the famous inventor Nikola Tesla invented the first radio transmitter.
18. Cinema. In 1895, the Lumiere brothers filmed the first world movie - the famous tape with the arrival of a train at the station.
19. X-ray radiation. Another important breakthrough in medicine was made in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. He invented an apparatus for filming using X-rays. This device, for example, can detect a fracture in a human bone.
20. Gas turbine. In 1899, the inventor Charles Curtis invented a mechanism, or rather a continuous combustion engine. Such engines were significantly more powerful than piston engines, but also more expensive. They are also actively used in the modern world.
21. Magnetic sound recording or tape recorder. In 1899, the Danish engineer Waldemar Poulsen made the first tape recorder - a device for recording and reproducing sound using magnetic tape.
Here was a list of some of the most important technical inventions of the XIX. Of course, during this period there were quite a large number of other inventions, in addition, they are no less important, but these inventions deserve special attention.

Inventions of the 19th century. From grateful descendants

The inventions of the 19th century laid the scientific and practical foundation for the discoveries and inventions of the 20th century. The nineteenth century became a springboard for the leap forward of civilization. In this article, I will highlight some of the most significant and outstanding scientific achievements of the nineteenth century. Tens of thousands of inventions, new technologies, fundamental scientific discoveries. Cars, aviation, spacewalk, electronics ... You can spend a long time enumerating. All this became possible in the 20th century thanks to the scientific and technical inventions of the 19th century.

Unfortunately, in one article it is impossible to tell in detail about every invention created in the century before last. Therefore, in this article, all inventions will be described as briefly as possible.

Inventions of the 19th century. The era of steam. Rails

The nineteenth century was golden for steam engines. Invented in the eighteenth century, it was more and more improved, and by the middle of the nineteenth century it was used almost everywhere. Factories, factories, mills ...
And back in 1804, the Englishman Richard Trevithick installed a steam engine on wheels. And the wheels rested on metal rails. The first steam locomotive turned out. Of course, he was very imperfect and was used as an amusing toy. The power of the steam engine was enough only for the movement of the locomotive itself, and a small cart with passengers. There was no question of the practical use of this construction.

But the steam engine can be supplied and more powerful. Then the locomotive will be able to carry more cargo. Of course, iron is expensive and the creation of a railway will cost a pretty penny. But the owners of coal mines and mines knew how to count money. And from the middle of the thirties of the nineteenth century, the first steam locomotives set off across the plains of Metropolis, hissing steam and scaring away horses and cows.

Such clumsy structures have allowed to dramatically increase the turnover. From mine to port, from port to steel furnace. Now it is possible to smelt more iron, and from it to create more machines. So the locomotive dragged technical progress forward with it.

Inventions of the 19th century. The era of steam. Rivers and seas

And the first steamer, ready for practical use, and not just another toy, spanked the Hudson with paddle wheels in 1807. Its inventor, Robert Fulton, installed a steam engine on a small river boat. The engine power was not great, but still the steamer made up to five knots per hour without the help of the wind. The steamer was a passenger ship, but at first few dared to step on board of such an unusual design. But gradually things got better. After all, steamers were less dependent on the vagaries of nature.

In 1819, the Savannah, a ship with a sail rig and an auxiliary steam engine, crossed the Atlantic Ocean for the first time. The sailors used the tailwind most of the way, and used the steam engine during calm weather. And 19 years later, the steamer Sirius made the transition across the Atlantic only with the help of steam.

In 1838, the Englishman Francis Smith installed a propeller instead of bulky paddle wheels, which was much smaller and allowed the ship to reach high speed. With the introduction of screw steamers, the centuries-old era of handsome sailing ships came to an end.

Inventions of the 19th century. Electricity

In the nineteenth century, experiments with electricity led to the creation of many devices and mechanisms. Scientists and inventors have carried out many experiments, derived the fundamental formulas and concepts used in our 21st century.

In 1800, the Italian inventor Alessandro Volta assembles the first galvanic cell - the prototype of the modern battery. A disc of copper, then a cloth soaked in acid, then a piece of zinc. This sandwich creates an electrical voltage. And if you connect such elements together, you get a battery. Its voltage and power directly depend on the number of galvanic cells.

1802, the Russian scientist Vasily Petrov, having constructed a battery of several thousand elements, receives the Voltaic arc, the prototype of modern welding and a light source.

In 1831, Michael Faraday invented the first electrical generator that can convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Now there is no need to burn with acid and collect together countless metal mugs. On the basis of this generator, Faraday creates an electric motor. While these are still demonstration models, clearly showing the laws of electromagnetic induction.

In 1834, the Russian scientist B.S. Jacobi designs the first electric motor with a rotating armature. This motor can already find practical use. The boat, propelled by this electric motor, goes against the current along the Neva, carrying 14 passengers.

Inventions of the 19th century. Electric lamp

Since the forties of the nineteenth century, experiments have been going on to create incandescent lamps. The current passed through a thin metal wire heats it up to a bright glow. Unfortunately, the metal hair burns out very quickly, and inventors are struggling to increase the life of the light bulb. Various metals and materials are used. Finally, in the nineties of the nineteenth century, the Russian scientist Alexander Nikolaevich Lodygin presents that electric light bulb to which we are accustomed. This is a glass bulb, from which air is pumped out; a filament of refractory tungsten is used as a filament.

Inventions of the 19th century. Telephone

In 1876, the American Alexander Bell patented the "talking telegraph", the prototype of the modern telephone. This device is still imperfect, the quality and range of communication leaves much to be desired. There is no call that everyone is used to, and to call a subscriber, you need to whistle into the receiver with a special whistle.
Literally a year later, Thomas Edison improves the phone by installing a carbon microphone. Now subscribers do not need to scream heart-rendingly into the phone. The communication range increases, the usual telephone receiver and a call appear.

Inventions of the 19th century. Telegraph

The telegraph was also invented in the early nineteenth century. The first samples were very imperfect, but then there was a qualitative leap. The use of an electromagnet made it possible to send and receive messages faster. But the existing legend about the inventor of the telegraph alphabet, Semuel Morse, is not entirely true. Morse invented the very principle of coding - a combination of short and long pulses. But the alphabet itself, numerical and alphabetic, was created by Alfred Weil. Telegraph lines have entangled the entire Earth over time. Submarine cables appeared, linking America and Europe. The huge data transfer speed has also made a significant contribution to the development of science.

Inventions of the 19th century. Radio

Radio also appeared in the nineteenth century, at the very end of it. It is believed that the first radio was invented by Marconi. Although his discovery was preceded by the work of other scientists, and in many countries the primacy of this inventor is often questioned.

For example, in Russia, Alexander Stepanovich Popov is considered the inventor of radio. In 1895 he presented his device, called a lightning detector. Lightning during a thunderstorm caused an electromagnetic pulse. From the antenna, this pulse entered the coherer - a glass flask with metal filings. The electrical resistance dropped sharply, the current went through the wire winding of the bell electromagnet, and a signal was heard. Then Popov repeatedly modernized his invention. The transceivers were installed on the warships of the Russian Navy, the communication range reached twenty kilometers. The first radio even saved the lives of fishermen who broke away on an ice floe in the Gulf of Finland.

Inventions of the 19th century. Automobile

The history of the car also dates back to the nineteenth century. Of course, connoisseurs of history can remember the steam car of the Frenchman Cugno, the first exit of which took place in 1770, by the way, the first exit ended and the first accident, the steam cart crashed into the wall. Cuyunho's invention cannot be considered a real car, it is more of a technical curiosity.
The inventor of a real car, which is suitable for everyday practical use, can be considered with a great degree of confidence Daimler Benz.

Benz made the first exit in his car in 1885. It was a three-wheeled carriage, with a gasoline engine, a simple carburetor, electric ignition and water cooling. There was even a differential! The engine power was just under one horsepower. The engine crew accelerated to 16 kilometers per hour, which, with a spring suspension and the simplest steering, was quite enough.

Of course, other inventions preceded the Benz car. So, the gasoline, or rather the gas, engine was created in 1860. It was a two-stroke engine that used a mixture of lighting gas and air as fuel. The ignition was spark ignition. By its design, it resembled a steam engine, but it was lighter and did not take time to light the firebox. Engine power was about 12 horsepower.
In 1876, a German engineer and inventor, Nikolaus Otto, designed a four-stroke gas engine. It turned out to be more economical and quiet, albeit more complex. In the theory of internal combustion engines, there is even a term "Otto Cycle", named after the creator of this power plant.
In 1885, two engineers, Daimler and Maybach, design a lightweight and compact carbureted engine that runs on gasoline. This unit is installed on its three-wheeled carriage by Benz.

In 1897, Rudolph Diesel assembles an engine in which the ignition of a mixture of air and fuel occurs from strong compression, and not from a spark. In theory, such an engine should be more economical than a carburetor one. Finally, the engine is assembled and the theory is confirmed. Trucks and ships now use engines called diesels.
Of course, tens and hundreds of automobile little things are invented, like the ignition coil, steering, headlights, and much more, which made the car comfortable and safe.

Inventions of the 19th century. The photo

In the 19th century, another invention appeared, without which it seems that existence is now unthinkable. This photo.
Camera - obscura, a box with a hole in the front wall, has been known since ancient times. Chinese scientists also noticed that if a room is tightly draped with curtains, and there is a small hole on the curtain, then on a bright sunny day, an image of the landscape outside the window appears on the opposite wall, albeit upside down. This phenomenon was often used by magicians and careless artists.

But it wasn't until 1826 that the Frenchman Joseph Niepce found a more practical use for the box that collects light. On a sheet of glass, Joseph applied a thin layer of asphalt lacquer. Then the first photographic plate was installed in the camera and ... In order to get the image, you had to wait about twenty minutes. And if this was not considered critical for landscapes, then those wishing to capture themselves in eternity had to try. After all, the slightest movement led to a spoiled, blurry frame. And the process of obtaining an image did not resemble the one that became customary in the twentieth century, and the cost of such a "photo" was very high.

A few years later, chemicals that were more sensitive to light appeared, now there was no need to sit and stare at one point and be afraid to sneeze. In the 1870s, photographic paper appeared, and ten years later, heavy and fragile glass plates were replaced by photographic film.

The history of photography is so interesting that we will definitely devote a separate large article to it.

Inventions of the 19th century. Gramophone

But a device that allows you to record and play sound, appeared almost at the turn of the century. At the end of November 1877, inventor Thomas Edison presented his next invention. It was a box with a spring mechanism on the inside, a long cylinder covered with foil and a horn on the outside. When the mechanism was launched, it seemed to many that a miracle had happened. From the metal funnel came, albeit quietly and illegibly, the sounds of a nursery rhyme about a girl who had brought her lamb to school. Moreover, the song was performed by the inventor himself.
Soon Edison improved this device, calling it a phonograph. Instead of foil, wax cylinders were used. The recording and playback quality has improved.

If you use a disc made of a durable material instead of a wax cylinder, the volume and duration of the sound will increase. The silk disc was first used in 1887 by Emil Berliner. The apparatus, called the gramophone, gained great popularity, because it turned out to be much faster and cheaper to stamp records with records than to record music on cylinders of soft wax.

And soon the first record companies appeared. But this is already the history of the twentieth century.

Inventions of the 19th century. Warfare

And of course, technical progress has not bypassed the military either. Of the most significant military inventions of the nineteenth century, one can note the massive transition from muzzle-loading smoothbore guns to rifled firearms. Cartridges appeared, in which gunpowder and a bullet were a single whole. A bolt appeared on the guns. Now the soldier did not have to separately pour gunpowder into the barrel, then insert the wad, then push the bullet and again the wad, wielding a ramrod at each operation. The rate of fire has increased several times.

The queen of the fields, artillery, has also undergone similar changes. From the second half of the nineteenth century, the barrels of guns became rifled, dramatically increasing the accuracy and range of fire. The loading now took place from the breech, and cylindrical shells were used instead of cannonballs. The barrels of the guns were now cast not from cast iron, but from more durable steel.

Pyroxylin smokeless gunpowder appeared, nitroglycerin was invented - an oily liquid that explodes with a slight shock or impact, and then dynamite - the same nitroglycerin mixed with binders.
The nineteenth century presented generals and admirals with the first machine gun, the first submarine, sea mines, unguided rockets and armored steel ships, torpedoes, and instead of red and blue uniforms suitable for parades, soldiers received a comfortable and invisible uniform on the battlefield. The electric telegraph was used for communication, and the invention of canned food greatly simplified the provision of food to the armies. Many of the wounded were saved by the anesthesia invented in 1842.

Inventions of the 19th century. Match

In the nineteenth century, a lot of things were invented, sometimes invisible in everyday life. Matches were invented, the most seemingly simple and ordinary thing, but for the appearance of this small wooden stick, the discoveries of chemists and designers were needed. Special machines were created for the mass production of matches.

1830 - Thomas McCall of Scotland invents the two-wheeled bicycle

1860 - Pierre Michaud from France modernizes the bike by adding pedals to it

1870 - James Starley from France creates a modification of a bicycle with a large wheel

1885 - Australia's John Kemp makes the bike safer

1960 a racing bike appears in the USA

In the mid-1970s, a mountain bike appeared in the United States.

Inventions of the 19th century. Stethoscope

Remember going to the doctor - therapist. Cold touch to the body of a metal round, the command "Breathe - do not breathe." This is a stethoscope. It appeared in 1819 due to the reluctance of the French physician Rene Laennec to put the ear to the patient's body. First, Aesculapius used paper tubes, then wood, and then the stethoscope was improved, became even more convenient, and modern devices use the same principles of operation, the hundred and first paper tubes.

Inventions of the 19th century. Metronome

To train novice musicians, to get a sense of rhythm in the nineteenth century, the metronome was invented, a simple mechanical device that evenly made clicks. The frequency of sounds was regulated by moving a special weight along the pendulum scale.

Inventions of the 19th century. Metal feathers

The nineteenth century also brought relief to the saviors of Rome - the geese. In the 1830s, metal feathers appeared, now there was no need to run after these proud birds in order to borrow a feather, and there was no need to edit steel feathers. By the way, the penknife was originally used for the permanent sharpening of bird feathers.

Inventions of the 19th century. ABC for the blind

As a toddler, inventor of the alphabet for the blind, Louis Braille went blind himself. This did not prevent him from studying, becoming a teacher, and inventing a special method of volumetric printing, now the letters could be touched with fingers. The Braille alphabet is still used today, thanks to it, people who have lost their eyesight or have been blind from birth were able to gain knowledge, get an intellectual job.

In 1836, an amusing construction appeared on one of the endless wheat fields in California. Several horses were pulling a cart, which rustled, creaked, squealed, frightened crows and respectable farmers. On the wagon, unsteady wheels spun, chains rattled and the blades of knives sparkled. This mechanical monster devoured wheat and spat out unnecessary straw. And the wheat accumulated in the belly of the monster. It was the first combine harvester. Later, the harvesters became even more productive, but they also required more and more tractive power, up to forty horses or oxen pulled mechanical monsters across the fields. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the steam engine came to the aid of horses.